Posted: March 29th, 2022

Alcohol drinking among young Jews

Parenting Style Influence on Excess Alcohol Intake Among Jewish Youth

Clinical Psychology

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The health hazards that are associated with adolescent alcohol use are well documented, and there is growing recognition among policymakers and clinicians alike that more needs to be done to address this public health threat. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of different parenting styles on alcohol consumption levels among Jewish college students in the United States. The study draws on attachment theory, social learning theory, and a parenting style model as the main theoretical frameworks to evaluate the effects of different parenting styles on alcohol consumption levels among Jewish adolescents to develop informed answers to the study’s three guiding research questions concerning the relationship between perceived parenting style and excess alcohol use of male, Jewish, college students aged 18-26 years, the relationship between academic achievement and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students and the relationship between age level and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students. The study uses a quantitative survey methodology to develop the informed answers to these guiding research questions. This study is important because there has been a steady increase in alcohol consumption among adolescent Jews since 2005 and the adverse effects of alcohol abuse are well documented.

The health hazards that are associated with adolescent alcohol use are well documented, and there is growing recognition among policymakers and clinicians alike that more needs to be done to address this public health threat. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of different parenting styles on alcohol consumption levels among Jewish college students in the United States. The study draws on attachment theory, social learning theory, and a parenting style model as the main theoretical frameworks to evaluate the effects of different parenting styles on alcohol consumption levels among Jewish adolescents to develop informed answers to the study’s three guiding research questions concerning the relationship between perceived parenting style and excess alcohol use of male, Jewish, college students aged 18-26 years, the relationship between academic achievement and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students and the relationship between age level and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students. The study used a quantitative survey methodology to develop the informed answers to these guiding research questions. This topic is timely and important because there has been a steady increase in alcohol consumption among adolescent Jews since 2005.

Parenting Style Influence on Excess Alcohol Intake Among Jewish Youth

A Personal Letter Toto Raise Community Awareness on Alcohol

There is an individual who under the influence of alcohol had a fatal accident while operating machinery; another, who got into a car, struck and killed innocent young pedestrians while they envisioned a promising future in the process of crossing a local street, and finally the woman who couldn’t give birth to a healthy child due to her chemical dependence / addiction. Unfortunately, alcohol’s influence on today’s youth is a disturbing reality. The stories of Alcohol’s current events never seem to change, only the characters. These narratives as we all know are far too familiar. Alcohol’s traction has managed a painful grip on our young adults. It’s time to weather the storm on the turbulent scars we have all bared witness to. Too many lives fall victim to excess alcohol intake, knowing just how easily accessible alcohol truly is to our community youth. Some of the other health and social concerns associated with alcohol use include liver cirrhosis, loss of family, unemployment, and psychiatric problems such as neurological issues, depression, and stroke. The CDC (2012) has also linked cardiovascular problems to high consumption levels of alcohol. In addition, the research to date using animals indicate sensitivity to alcohol is especially high during adolescence, and chronic levels of alcohol use during the adolescent period have also been shown to increase cellular death that may have severe implications that can persist into later adulthood. Reflecting on publishing’s “while under the influence … ” annual statistics, there is a clear overdue necessity to a healthier and more productive society. Imagine a better future with positive social change, beginning now.

Table of Contents

List of Figures

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study 1

Adolescent Use of Alcohol 1

Background for Adolescent Use of Alcohol 5

Alcohol and the Jewish Community 7

Social Groups 9

Jewish Social Groups 10

Problem Statement 11

Purpose Statement 14

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework 15

Research Question 18

Variables 18

Nature of the Study 19

Definitions 20

Assumptions 21

Scope and Delimitations 21

Limitations 22

Significance of the Study 23

Organization of the Study 24

Conclusion

Chapter 2: Literature Review 25

Introduction 25

Attachment Theory 25

Prevalence of Alcohol Use Among Adolescents 27

Health Effects of Drinking Alcohol 28

Factors Associated with Adolescent Drinking 29

Alcohol and Peer Pressure 30

Alcohol and Family 31

Attitudes and Alcohol Use 33

Parenting Style and Alcohol Use 36

Parenting Styles 38

Parenting Influences on the Development of Alcohol Abuse and Dependence 42

General Parenting Effects on Child Outcomes 44

Parenting Effects on Alcohol Abuse of Offspring 44

Judaism and Alcohol Use 44

Alcohol Use and Gender Differences in the Jewish Religion 48

Alcohol Use Among Jewish College Students 49

Theoretical Framework 49

Methods 52

Summary 53

Chapter 3: Research Methods 54

Research Question 54

Population/Sample 56

Instruments 57

Procedure 59

Participants 60

Measurement 60

Limitations 62

Ethical Considerations 62

References 68

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List of Figures

Figure 1.Independent variable of perceived parenting style relationship with dependent variable alcohol consumption. 19

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study

Adolescent Use of Alcohol

Alcohol use among adolescents is acknowledged as a significant family and societal problem (Yang, Zhiyong, & Schaninger, 2010). Professionals in multiple healthcare fields have warned that adolescent alcohol use can lead to (a) detrimental drinking patterns, (b) negative influences on families, and (c) significant costs to society (Yang et al., 2010). According to the National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (CASA), the costs of adolescent alcohol to society have been estimated at $68 billion annually (National study, 2016) and these economic costs do not take into account the human costs that are involved.

Alcohol use among adolescents is acknowledged as a significant family and societal problem (Yang, Zhiyong, & Schaninger, 2010). Professionals in multiple healthcare fields have warned that adolescent alcohol use can lead to (a) detrimental drinking patterns, (b) negative influences on families, and (c) significant costs to society (Yang et al., 2010). The costs of adolescent alcohol to society have been estimated at $68 billion annually (National study reveals teen substance use America’s no. 1 public health problem, 2011). These economic costs are in addition to the tragic toll that adolescent alcohol use can exact, a toll that can extend in adulthood.

Adolescents who drink, for example, are more likely to drink excessively when they are adults, which can lead to significant mental and physical health problems; thus, it is important to understand how to reduce the prevalence of adolescent alcohol abuse (Yang et al., 2010), including the effects of different parenting styles on alcohol use. To this end, this chapter presents preliminary information concerning different parenting styles, a background for adolescent use of alcohol, a discussion concerning the role of alcohol and the Jewish community, and an overview of social groups in general and Jewish groups in particular and the impact of alcohol consumption on them. A statement of the problem is followed by a description of the purpose of the study, the study’s theoretical and conceptual framework and its guiding research questions. A description of the study’s variables and the nature of the study, assumptions, and the study’s scope, delimitations and limitations, as well as definitions of key terms are followed by a discussion of the significance of the study and its organization. Finally, a summary concludes this chapter.

Overview of the Impact of Different Parenting Styles of Adolescent Alcohol UseAdolescents who drink, for example, are more likely to drink excessively when they are adults, which can lead to significant mental and physical health problems; thus, it is important to understand how to reduce the prevalence of adolescent alcohol abuse (Yang et al., 2010). To this end, this chapter presents preliminary information concerning different parenting styles, a background for adolescent use of alcohol, a discussion concerning the role of alcohol and the Jewish community, and an overview of social groups in general and Jewish groups in particular and the impact of alcohol consumption on them. A statement of the problem is followed by a description of the purpose of the study, the study’s theoretical and conceptual framework and its guiding research questions. A description of the study’s variables and the nature of the study, assumptions, and the study’s scope, delimitations and limitations as well as definitions of key terms are followed by a discussion of the significance of the study and its organization. Finally, a summary concludes this chapter.

Parenting style has been identified as a dominant factor in deciding the overall outlook of a child’s behavior (Baumrind, 1991). In particular, with an authoritative style, parents can mediate alcohol use frequency in their teen children (Yang et al., 2012). Even in late adolescence, parental involvement in accordance with alcohol use education and support yielded young adults making better peer friendships in college, which led to preventative measures of excess alcohol intake (Abar & Turrisi, 2008). Similarly, successful parental monitoring allowed for their college-aged children to pick friends who did not abuse alcohol. In these cases, parents served as good mentors in developing healthy coping strategies for becoming productive members of society (Abar & Turrisi, 2008).

Parenting styles have been identified as a dominant determinant of children’s behavior, but parental influence becomes less important as young people grow older (Altay & Gure, 2012). Researchers have determined an authoritative parenting style can mediate alcohol use frequency in teen children (Yang, Schaninger&Laroche, 2012). Abar and Turrisi (2008) found that even if parents provided alcohol education and support in late adolescence, better outcomes were realized. The positive outcomes included better peer friendships in college, which acted as a preventative measure for excess alcohol intake. The researchers found that parental monitoring led to college aged children picking friends who did not abuse alcohol; thus, parents served as good mediators in developing healthy coping strategies for becoming productive members of society (Abar & Turrisi, 2008).

Researchers have found a relationship between parenting style and adolescents’ attitudes, knowledge, and behavior with respect to alcohol use (Ballantine, 2009). In some cases, an authoritative parenting style can be effective in shaping healthy attitudes about alcohol use in young people, while in others a different style is required. There are four main types of parenting styles commonly recognized today: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful (Ballantine, 2009):

Authoritative parenting style. Authoritative parents are demanding and responsive; controlling but not restrictive. This child-centered pattern includes (a) high parental involvement, interest, and active participation in the child’s life; (b) open communication; trust and acceptance; encouragement of psychological autonomy; and (c) awareness of where children are, with whom, and what they are doing.

Authoritarian parenting style. Authoritarian parents are demanding, but not responsive. They show little trust toward their children, and their way of engagement is strictly adult-centered. These parents often fear losing control, and they discourage open communication.

Permissive parenting style. Permissive parents are responsive, warm, accepting, and child-centered, but non-demanding. They lack parental control.

Neglectful parenting style. Neglectful parents are neither responsive nor demanding. They do not support or encourage their child’s self-regulation, and they often fail to monitor or supervise the child’s behavior. They are uninvolved (p. 46).

Not surprisingly, different outcomes for young people are the result ofresult from using different parenting styles, and some styles are more effective for some purposes than others. The type of parenting styles used has an effect on young people’s social and psychological adjustments that can influence alcohol use and abuse (Ballantine, 2009). The research to date indicates that an authoritative parenting style without the use of physical punishment is the most effective for controlling adolescent alcohol use (Ballantine, 2009). However, parenting style is not the only factor influencing alcohol consumption in adolescents.

Overview Ofof Impact Of Peer Pressure Of Adolescent Alcohol Use

Another factor found to influence or govern alcohol consumption in adolescents and young adults is peer pressure, which can be intensified due to cultural or religious factors (Jones, 2014). In some societies, young people are allowed to enjoy a glass of wine at dinner with the adult members of the family, and nothing negative is associated with the practice. Likewise, the legal drinking age varies from country to country, and some countries, such as Japan, offer alcoholic beverages in vending machines that are accessible by all (Balko, 2010).

Similarly, in Judaism, wine is essential in most cultural and religious ceremonies; Jewish children become acquainted with alcohol at a young age through older family members during Sabbath. Many Jews grow up following this tradition of getting blessed over wine, and having a sip, every week on Sabbath day. Judaism, however, advocates controlled alcohol consumption, and sacred scriptures warn against overindulgence. Velleman (2002) found, however, that particular occasions, such as Passover celebrations, are times when Jews drink intoxicating quantities. According to Velleman, until fairly recently, Jews exhibited very low rates of drinking problems. Weiss (2001) as well as Velleman (2002), however, admit that drinking issues are increasing among Jews, and the authors hint at various reasons responsible for the rise in drinking. One of the issues identified was the transformation of traditional family strength.

These are important issues because alcohol use among adolescents and young adults, in general, is escalating. Alcohol use is increasingly being acknowledged as a significant family and social problem (Yang et al., 2010). Alcohol use frequency has been an increasing problem on college campuses in particular (Larimer & Conce, 2007). Serious potential health consequences, the start of detrimental drinking patterns, negative influences on families, and cost to society are concerns expressed by professionals in multiple healthcare fields (Audrain-McGovern et al., 2004; Yang et al., 2010). Today, there is a need for additional research into youth drinking patterns in order to develop the best possible preventative strategies and interventions. Research must be culturally specific as well as age appropriate. This proposed research study focuses on the possible relationship between parenting styles and drinking habits among Jewish youth, and offers suggestions for treatment and prevention strategies.

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Young adult and teen drinking are rising and acknowledged as a significant family and social challenge (Yang et al., 2010). Serious potential health consequences, the start of detrimental drinking patterns, negative influences on families, and cost to society are concerns expressed by professionals in multiple healthcare fields (Audrain-McGovern et al., 2004; Yang et al., 2010).

Adolescents who drink may be more likely to drink excessively when they are adults, which could lead to mental and physical health problems. A rise in adolescent drinking increases the importance of understanding how do reduce the prevalence of alcohol abuse (Yang et al., 2010). Parenting style has been identified as a dominant factor in deciding the overall outlook of a child’s behavior (Baumrind, 1991). In particular, with an authoritative style, parents can mediate alcohol use frequency in their teen children (Yang et al., 2012). Even in late adolescence, parental involvement in accordance with alcohol use education and support yielded young adults making better peer friendships in college, which led to preventative measures of excess alcohol intake (Abar & Turrisi, 2008). Similarly, successful parental monitoring allowed for their college-aged children to pick friends who did not abuse alcohol. In these cases, parents served as good mentors in developing healthy coping strategies for becoming productive members of society (Abar & Turrisi, 2008).

Parenting styles have influenced the degree and frequency of alcohol use in college age students (Larimer & Conce, 2007,; Yang et al., 2010). In particular, there has been a clear association between parental monitoring and reduced drinking among teens (Beck et al., 2004). For example, Goncy and van Dulman (2010) noted that, “Empirical findings demonstrate that several parental factors are related to alcohol use, alcohol related problems and co-occurring risky behaviors” (p. 94). Parental support and higher involvements levels have been shown to reduce adolescent problem behavior including alcohol use (Goncy & van Dulman, 2010). It is also noteworthy that these findings held true across ethnicities and gender, and higher levels of parental support and involvement were consistently associated with less alcohol use by adolescents (Goncy & van Dulman, 2010).

One of the parenting styles that has positively influenced reduced alcohol use among adolescent college adults is the authoritative style (Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2006). Authoritative parents are described as highly demanding but responsive, and this style of parenting has demonstrated noteworthy success in safeguarding children from alcohol use frequency (Baumrind, 1991, 2005).Though children whose parents are authoritative were least unstable and most adept, those with parents having a fairly imbalanced demanding-responsive ratio (i.e., non-authoritarian-directive and democratic), were nearly equally well adjusted and adept (Baumrind, 1991, 2005). As compared to youth from democratic and authoritative backgrounds, those hailing from directive families (non-authoritarian and authoritarian) were slightly less academically adept and individuated; however, they had good social skills and those whose parents were non-authoritarian-directive were more proficient and less troubled than those whose parents were authoritarian-directive (Baumrind, 1991, 2005).

Children’s levels of competency, thus, can be predicted by parenting styles, and parenting styles can temper impacts of (perceived) parenting practices excluding abuse. Hence, variables that represent demandingness factor prove more beneficial when implanted in authoritative structures. Contrary to authoritarian structures, the authoritative structure combines firm supervision and control on behavior with support of child self-sufficiency and affection. Likewise, high responsiveness levels positively impact children when combined with high levels of demandingness in authoritative systems, but not on combining with low levels of demandingness in tolerant settings (Baumrind, 1991, 2005). Earlier outcomes, such as the outcomes found by Baumrind (1991) indicated there is a positive relationship between adolescent autonomy and authoritative parenting (Baumrind, 2005). Notwithstanding this research, there remains a gap in the body of knowledge concerning the effects of different parenting styles on the consumption of alcohol by adolescents within the Jewish community today, making the need for studies of this type essential.

Alcohol and the Jewish Community

Jewish culture is centered on ritual performances, and alcohol often plays a role in those rituals (Wasser, 2013). In the Orthodox Jewish community, alcohol is more readily available and provided at almost every traditional ritual and ceremony (Wasser, 2013). For example, a bris is the circumcision ritual is performed on the eighth day after birth. It is a reference to the circumcision of Abraham and the original Covenant with God (Glass, 1999). The Rabbi and father of the boy being circumcised make a blessing on wine. It is customary for everyone present at the ceremony to have a sip from the cup of blessed wine as a symbol of unity to the Jewish covenant (Glasswell, 1974).

Alcohol is present since the time of birth; it is clear that separating alcohol from Jewish ritual and custom is impossible. Traditions are part of the moral fabric of Jewish cultural and family life. Judaism’s vision is to communicate a morally sound way of life (Wasser, 2013). As a collectivist community, participants are taught to foster feelings of connectedness to family, community, and the people of Israel (Wasser, 2013). During the Sabbath, which lasts from Friday evening through Saturday evening, every traditional orthodox Jewish home performs a minimum of three rituals involving wine (Landsberger, 1956). Alcoholic beverages are used for kiddush, a special prayer made every week by the Sabbath table (Fogel, 2005). This ritual is performed at least two times over the weekend (Fogel, 2005). In addition, during many other celebrations, there is plenty of whiskey, wine, and beer available in Jewish households (Horowitz, 1989).

These religious views about alcohol consumption can become problematic when young Jewish people leave home and enter college. Moreover, the powerful impact of peer pressure on alcohol consumption levels is well documented. Research, as well as theory, indicates that social rules interventions may be formed to tackle secondhand impacts of high-risk drink-consumption and demonstrations of prejudicial actions. A lot has been discovered by effectively applying theories of social rules to prevent alcohol abuse. Interventions and research indicate that the social rules principle alone can effectually decrease alcohol use, but some studies have found that an approach using social norms may not effective in mitigating alcohol consumption for certain communities and must be combined with parallel interventions such as skills training to optimize their impact (Perkins, 2003; Velleman, 2009).

There are other aspects of Jewish life that can encourage alcohol consumption by Jewish youths. For instance, bar mitzvahs and Jewish weddings are replete with rituals that involve drinking alcohol (Mann, 1988). In almost all traditional celebrations, wine is present, as wine makes an appearance in many Biblical texts (Charing, 1981; Gersh, 1971). It is therefore possible that the Jewish culture has higher levels of alcohol consumption at religious rituals versus the general population (Charing, 1981; Gersh, 1971). When students study the Talmud and Jewish law, they learn about the role alcohol plays in rituals. Graduates from Rabbinical colleges may devote the rest of their lives to the study of Torah and other Jewish texts. Therefore, alcohol abuse must be understood within the overall context of Jewish culture. Focusing on male Rabbinical students allows for an examination of how parenting styles, culture, and alcohol availability all play a role in drinking patterns.

Social Groups

In general, group processes and group socialization demonstrates commonality between individuals while deepening understanding of relationships within and between groups by means of a source of social identity (Moody & White, 2003). It provides solid arena fora sense of who/what they are, their worth, and the message intent manifested by a specific group membership (Moody & White, 2003). The next key factor is existing tension in group life between its task and socio-emotional aspects (e.g., doing what they do as a group, praying, smoking, music, etc.) while further complimenting their status by assimilating outside the group (Moody & White, 2003).

Finally, the underpinnings of group dynamics carry social comparison processes, both among inter-group members and various out-groups (Brown, 2000). However, there are ample supporting simulations from contemporary life, focusing on issues of social sense of belonging (Brown, 2000). For example, crowd behavior, social conformity, group productivity, ethnic prejudice, conflict, and cooperation between groups (Brown, 2000).

Jewish Social Groups

Framing adolescent alcohol abuse within a cultural context is important because it helps highlight individual and social variables that can be used to identify the most effective intervention strategies. Some social groups such as American Jews are exposed to alcohol from a young age, such as during religious rituals. This ongoing exposure may normalize drinking and may therefore lead to increased risk for alcohol abuse.

Interestingly, prior research on young adult and college age American Jews revealed that in spite of normative alcohol present in their culture, there were lower rates of alcoholism and alcohol abuse (Cahalan & Cisin, 1968; HEW, 1972; Levy, 1973; Mulford, 1964; Riley & Marder, 1947). Yet since 2005, there has been a measured increase in alcohol intake among adolescent Jews (Fogel, 2005). The later phase of adolescence is one where pressure and a desire to act as an independent individual are overwhelming enough to convince college students to opt toward excessive alcohol use frequencies, which is why this segment of the population is critical to study (Bahr & Hoffman, 2012; Changalwa et al., 2012; Peckham & Lopez, 2007). This sizeable population is worthy of study due to their increased risk for excessive alcohol consumption.

The current study focuses on parenting styles and their influence on drinking patterns in college age male American Jews. To date, little prior research has been conducted specifically on this cultural group and parental influence on drinking. Although parenting styles is the primary focus of the research, it is also important to note the significance of group processes. Focusing on a population of American Jews allows for an understanding of why and how parenting styles evolve, and how those parenting styles might conjoin with other psychosocial and cultural factors such as group conformity and identity.

In general, group processes and group socialization encourage commonality between individuals, while deepening a sense of personal and social identity (Moody, & White, 2003). Group identity provides solid arena for identity construction (Moody & White, 2003). Assimilation and norming are core group processes that can influence individual behaviors (Moody & White, 2003). It is important to understand group dynamics to understand individual behaviors (Brown, 2000).

Problem Statement

According to demographic research conducted by researchers at Brandeis University (2011), there are 6.8 million Jewish adults and children in the United States (U.S.), and 20% of them live in the state of New York (Tighe et al., 2012). These nearly seven million young people are confronted with some serious healthcare issues because there has been an increase in alcohol intake among adolescent Jews since 2005 (Fogel, 2005). Adolescents who drink may be more likely to drink excessively when they are adults, a situation that could lead to mental and physical health problems (Yang et al., 2010). As noted above, different parenting styles have a direct impact on adolescent alcohol use, but there remains a dearth of timely and relevant research concerning these effects as they relate to the Jewish community.

Since 2005, there has been an increase in alcohol intake among adolescent Jews (Fogel, 2005). There was a gap in the extant literature, however, regarding adolescent alcohol use; previous studies had not included the concept of culture, alcohol use, and parenting style. Earlier studies have not focused specifically on a cultural context with regard to relationships between parenting styles and alcohol use by adolescents (Beck et al., 2004; Bahr & Hoffmann, 2010; Balhorn, Cheong, Larimer & Conce, 2007; Fogel, 2005; Njenga, 2005; Patock-Peckham & Nagoshi, 2001; Peckham & Lopez, 2007). Therefore, direct and immediate action to identify optimal parenting styles is necessary in order to ensure the long-term health of Jewish youth, their families, and their communities.

The purpose of this quantitative survey research will be to explore what parenting styles are associated with alcohol consumption among Jewish college students in the U.S. How will this be done? There was a gap in the extant literature regarding adolescent alcohol use; previous studies had not included the concept of culture, alcohol use, and parenting style. Earlier studies have not focused specifically on a cultural context with regard to relationships between parenting styles and alcohol use by adolescents (Beck et al., 2004; Bahr & Hoffmann, 2010; Balhorn, Cheong, Larimer & Conce, 2007; Fogel, 2005; Njenga, 2005; Patock-Peckham, & Nagoshi, 2001; Peckham & Lopez, 2007).

According to demographic research conducted by researchers at Brandeis University (2011), there are 6.8 million Jewish adults and children in the United States (U.S.), and 20% of them live in the state of New York (Tighe et al., 2012). These nearly 7 million young people are confronted with some serious healthcare issues because there has been an increase in alcohol intake among adolescent Jews since 2005 (Fogel, 2005). Adolescents who drink may be more likely to drink excessively when they are adults, a situation that could lead to mental and physical health problems (Yang et al., 2010). Therefore, direct and immediate action is necessary in order to ensure the long-term health of Jewish youth, their families, and their communities.

Purpose Statement

This study has the potential to result in positive social change by bringing to light cultural aspects of parenting styles and their potential effect on patterns of drinking. Investigating the relationship of parenting styles and alcohol consumption patterns in adolescents may reveal the need for better intervention programs or community health initiatives (Bahr & Hoffman, 2012; Changalwa et al., 2012; Peckham & Lopez, 2007) and fill the gap in the existing body of knowledge using the theoretical framework (attachment theory, social learning theory and Baumrind’s (1991, 2005) parenting style models as discussed further below.

The purpose of this quantitative survey research will be to explore what parenting styles are associated with alcohol consumption among Jewish college students in the U.S. Since 2005, there has been an increase in alcohol intake among adolescent Jews (Fogel, 2005). There was a gap in the extant literature regarding adolescent alcohol use; previous studies had not included the concept of culture, alcohol use, and parenting style. Earlier studies have not focused specifically on a cultural context with regard to relationships between parenting styles and alcohol use by adolescents (Beck et al., 2004; Bahr & Hoffmann, 2010; Balhorn, Cheong, Larimer & Conce, 2007; Fogel, 2005; Njenga, 2005; Patock-Peckham, & Nagoshi, 2001; Peckham & Lopez, 2007). This study has the potential to result in positive social change by bringing to light cultural aspects of parenting styles and their potential effect on patterns of drinking. Investigating the relationship of parenting styles and alcohol consumption patterns in adolescents may reveal the need for better intervention programs or community health initiatives (Bahr & Hoffman, 2012; Changalwa et al., 2012; Peckham & Lopez, 2007) and fill the gap in the existing body of knowledge. Comment by Microsoft Office User: This fits more in the problem as wellPlaced This Paragraph Accordingly. Let Me Know Your Thoughts.

Theoretical Framework

Attachment theory, social learning theory, and Baumrind’s (1991, 2005) parenting styles model are the main theoretical frameworks used in this research. It is postulated that parenting style is related to issues such as the ability of teens to withstand peer pressure and to develop positive self-image, which are in turn related to self-regulation regarding alcohol use. The variable relationships tested are depicted graphically in Figure 1 below.

Authoritarian

Authoritative

Permissive

Age

GPA

Gender (male)

Alcohol Consumption

Figure 1. Independent variable of perceived parenting style relationship with dependent variable alcohol consumption. Moderating variables measured include age (18 -26), academic achievement (grade point average) and current college level (Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, Senior)

As will be discussed further in chapter 2 below, parenting styles have influenced the degree and frequency of alcohol use in college age students (Larimer & Conce, 2007; Yang et al., 2010). In particular, there has been a clear association between parental monitoring and reduced drinking among teens (Beck et al., 2004). One of the parenting styles that have positively influenced reduced alcohol use among adolescent college adults was the authoritative style (Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2006). Authoritative parents are described as being highly demanding but responsive, and the authoritative style of parenting has been shown to be successful for safeguarding children from alcohol use frequency (Baumrind, 1991, 2005).

Parenting styles have been identified as a dominant factor in deciding the overall outlook of a child’s behavior (Baumrind, 1991, 2005). In particular, an authoritative parenting style can mediate teen alcohol use frequency (Yang et al., 2012). Even in late adolescence, parental involvement in accordance with alcohol use education and support yielded young adults making better peer friendships in college, leading to preventative measures of excess alcohol intake (Abar & Turrisi, 2008). Similarly, successful parental monitoring led to college aged children choosing friends that do not abuse alcohol. In these cases, parents served as good mentors in developing healthy coping strategies for becoming productive members of society (Abar & Turrisi, 2008).

Healthy attachment styles are related to parenting styles (Doyle, Karavasilis, & Markiewicz, 2003). Parenting styles are communicated in a number of different ways. Benson and Haith (2010), for example, noted that, “Parenting styles convey parents’ overall feeling about the child through body language, tone of voice, emotional displays and quality of attention” (p. 281). In particular, authoritative parenting is correlated with secure adolescent attachment (Doyle & Markiewicz, 2009).

Different parenting styles have been measured in accordance with self-regulation during peer pressure incidents such as those involving pressure to use alcohol (Balhorn, Cheong, Patock-Peckham & Nagoshi, 2001) Self-regulation of alcohol use among teens was positively correlated with authoritative parenting styles, while other parenting styles were associated with negative outcomes of self-regulating behavior in adolescents, and those teens were more likely to experiment with and use alcohol regularly (Balhorn et al., 2001).

Baumrind (1991, 2005) described five dominant elements of parenting. These elements included (a) warmth, (b) nurturance, (c) discipline strategy, (d) communication skills, and (e) expectations about maturity (Sarac, 2001). The configuration of these five elements in a household had a bearing on child development (Baumrind, 1991, 2005; Sarac, 2001). The ability of parents to control and limit their children’s behavior is one of the most significant features associated with helping adolescents develop prosaically (Baumrind, 1991, 2005; Bretherton, 1992). Family environment and overall household culture are also key factors that play a major role in deciding the alcohol consumption pattern of college age students (Njenga, 2005). The experiences that a child encounters in early childhood either develop or discourage certain patterns of behaviors (Njenga, 2005).

Three typical parenting behaviors were outlined by Baumrind (1991, 2005) and Bretherton (1992) including authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative. Another parenting style was identified as the uninvolved/disengaged, or neglectful parent (Ballatine, 2009). Parenting style has been considered as a dominant factor in deciding the overall outlook of a child’s personality (Baumrind, 1991, 2005). However, alcohol use frequencies are present in all four different styles of parenting to a greater or less degree (Balhorn, Cheong, Patock-Peckham, & Nagoshi, 2001). There is a need to further investigate how parenting style influences alcohol consumption of adolescence during their years of college. The later phase of adolescence is the age of focus for this research because late adolescence is when individuals begin to act independently. Additionally, late adolescents experience social pressures and stressors that can be overwhelming enough to lead some college students to alcohol use and abuse (Bahr & Hoffman, 2012; Changalwa et al., 2012; Peckham & Lopez, 2007). In short, it can and should be explored how attachment theory, social learning theory, and Baumrind’s (1991, 2005) take on parenting style models have an effect on the ensuing and resulting alcohol consumption of Jewish youth. In short, it can and should be explored how attachment theory, social learning theory, and Baumrind’s (1991, 2005) take on parenting style models have an effect on the ensuing and resulting alcohol consumption of Jewish youth.

Research Question

RQ1. What is the relationship between perceived parenting style and excess alcohol use of male, Jewish, college students aged 18-26 years?

H01 There is no relationship between the independent variable of perceived parenting styles and the dependent variable of alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

HA1 There is a positive relationship between the independent variable of perceived parenting style and the dependent variable of alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

RQ2: What is the relationship between academic achievement and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students?

H02 There is no relationship between the academic achievement and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

HA2 There is a relationship between academic achievement and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

RQ3: What is the relationship between age level and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students?

H03 There is no relationship between age and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

HA3 There is a relationship between age and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

RQ1. “What is the relationship between perceived parenting style and excess alcohol use of male, Jewish, college students aged 18-26 years?”

H01 There is no relationship between the independent variable of perceived parenting styles and the dependent variable of alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

HA1 There is a positive relationship between the independent variable of perceived parenting style and the dependent variable of alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

RQ2: “What is the relationship between academic achievement and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students?

H02 There is no relationship between the academic achievement and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

HA2 There is a relationship between academic achievement and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

RQ3: “What is the relationship between age level and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students?

H03 There is no relationship between age level and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

HA3 There is a relationship between age and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

Variables

The independent variable is parenting style. Parenting styles will be measured by the parental authority index (PAI) (Buri, 1991). Perceived parental styles of authoritarian, authoritative, permissive/uninvolved, and neglectful/uninvolved will also be measured using a perceived parenting style questionnaire known as PAQ. The validity and reliability of the PAQ was established by Buri (1991). The dependent variable will be defined as college age alcohol consumption as measured by alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT) (Dawson, Smith, & Saha, 2012). Alcohol consumption patterns will be measured using the AUDIT (Dawson et al., 2012). The World Health Organization recommends AUDIT to identify excess alcohol use/dependence and “provides a framework for intervention,” as it is designed for health care practitioners in a “range of health settings” (Babor et al., 2001, p. 371). Dependent variables will be the age of the respondents and their academic achievement levels.The independent variable is parenting style. Parenting styles will be measured by the parental authority index (PAI) (Buri, 1991). Perceived parental styles of authoritarian, authoritative, permissive/uninvolved, and neglectful/uninvolved will also be measured using a perceived parenting style questionnaire known as PAQ. The validity and reliability of the PAQ was established by Buri (1991). The dependent variable will be defined as college age alcohol consumption as measured by alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT) (Dawson, Smith, & Saha, 2012). Alcohol consumption patterns will be measured using the AUDIT (Dawson et al., 2012). The World Health Organization recommends AUDIT to identify excess alcohol use/dependence and “provides a framework for intervention,” as it is designed for health care practitioners in a “range of health settings” (Babor et al., 2001, p. 371).

Nature of the Study

The proposed study will be conducted using a quantitative methodology using Buri’s (1991) parental authority questionnaire (PAQ). The PAQ was developed to determine the main parental styles from the point-of-view of the child. The parental styles measured are (a) permissive, (b) authoritarian, and (c) authoritative. The PAQ survey consists of thirty items, with ten questions for each parenting style. The alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT) is a survey for adults used to identify risky drinking behaviors by asking about quantity and frequency of use. It was developed by the World Health Organization (WHO), and has a high degree of external validity. The sample will be reached via Survey Monkey will be used as a national probability sample identifier of the U.S. Jewish population in the data collection.

As noted above, there are 6.8 million Jewish adults and children in the U.S., and 20% of them live in the state of New York (Tighe et al., 2012). The estimated sample consists of 200 participants who will have signed and completed the informed consent form as part of the online survey. Since the survey was designed to measure parenting styles, it is necessary to have people who are willing to comment on their own drinking habits, provide their perceptions of their parents’ parenting styles, and report on their academic achievement levels. The sample is deliberately homogenous according to gender, as only males have been selected for participation; Jewish males were the target group for the current research; however, age ranges may differ among the participants since many college students required longer to complete their course of study than others. In addition, the participants may come from different family backgrounds, most of which are two parent households, but not negating the possibility of single-parent households. No students outside of University/Rabbinical college attendance will be included.

As noted above, there are 6.8 million Jewish adults and children in the U.S., and 20% of them live in the state of New York (Tighe et al., 2012). The estimated sample consists of 200 participants who will have signed and completed the informed consent form as part of the online survey. Since the survey was designed to measure parenting styles, it is necessary to have people who are willing to comment on their own drinking habits and provide their perceptions of their parents’ parenting styles. The sample is deliberately homogenous according to gender, as only males have been selected for participation; Jewish males were the target group for the current research. The participants may come from different family backgrounds, most of which are two parent households, but not negating the possibility of single-parent households. No students outside of University/Rabbinical college attendance will be included.

Definitions

Rabbinical college. Rabbinical college is where post high school students study the Talmud and Jewish law. Graduates from these colleges usually devote the rest of their lives to the Torah (Jewish Bible). Many of these individuals become Rabbis who are responsible for passing on the teachings of the great Jewish scholars (Heilman, 1992).

Academic achievement grade-point average (GPA). This term refers to a scale variable calculated by high school GPA, university entrance examination scores and class ranks (Cohen & Rice 1997).

Academic achievement grade-point average (GPA) refers to a scale variable calculated by high school GPA, university entrance examination scores and class ranks (Cohen & Rice 1997)

Age. For the purposes of this study, this refers to a scale variable computed by American adults aged 18 years and over within the subgroup.

Age refers to a scale variable computed by American adults aged 18 years and over within the subgroup

Gender refers to a scale variable determined by gender belief; it gauges and evaluates a culture’s endorsement of philosophical views on gender roles. Measures have a tendency of tapping into numerous common discourses and themes, which constitute masculine or feminine belief. This approach encompasses awareness of individuals about cultural pressures to comply with specific expectations irrespective of personal preferences (Haslenger, 2000).

Authoritarian refers to a scale variable calculated through 60 items (thirty for each parent) that inquire into people’s perceptions regarding their parent’s authority style while they were raised (Kordi & Baharudin, 2010).

Authoritative refers to a scale variable calculated through 60 items (thirty for each parent) that inquire into people’s perceptions regarding their parent’s authority style while they were raised (Kordi & Baharudin, 2010).

Permissive refers to a scale variable calculated through 60 items (thirty for each parent) that inquire into people’s perceptions regarding their parent’s authority style while they were raised (Kordi & Baharudin, 2010).

Alcohol Consumption refers to a scale variable gauged by alcohol consumption frequency in the previous year, and was coded in the following manner: 1= lower than once per month; 2=one time a month; 3 = 2-3 times per month; 4 = once a week; 5 = 2-3times per week; 6 = 4-5 times per week; and 7 = daily or almost every day (Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2009).

Alcohol Consumption refers to a scale variable gauged by alcohol consumption frequency in the previous year, and was coded in the following manner: 1= lower than once per month; 2=one time a month; 3 = 2-3 times per month; 4 = once a week; 5 = 2-3 times per week; 6 = 4-5 times per week; and 7 = daily or almost every day (Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2009).

Assumptions

For the purposes of this study, it was assumed that all respondents answered the survey questions honestly and that they were the individuals they purported to be. In addition, it was assumed that researcher bias did not unduly influence the interpretation of the findings that emerged from the analysis of the primary and secondary data.

For the purposes of this study, it was assumed that all respondents answered the survey questions honestly and that they were the individuals they purported to be. Comment by Microsoft Office User: This is the only assumption

Scope and Delimitations

High-risk alcohol drinking frequencies have been a global problem for centuries (Petersen, 2003; Room, Babor & Rehm, 2005). However, there is a gap in the literature with regard to what is known about alcohol use in the U.S. Jewish community. Other groups of college freshman were studied, and results indicated there was a clear connection between parenting style and drinking frequencies (Brand, Mitchell, Read & Wood, 2004).

The proposed study will focus on the U.S. Jewish community. The study will only include Jewish males between 18-26 years old. Samples will be drawn via Survey Monkey, and the survey will be accessed via an online environment to ensure confidentiality and anonymity. Peer pressure, Jewish affiliation, alcoholism, other Jewish communities, and secure adult attachment will not be measured.

The estimated sample will be 200 participants who will have signed and completed the informed consent form before being allowed to complete the online survey. Since the survey was also designed to measure parenting styles, it is necessary to have people who are willing to comment on their perceptions of their parents’ parenting styles. The sample is deliberately homogenous according to gender, as only males were selected for participation and males were the target group for the current research. The participants may come from different family backgrounds, most of which are two parent households, but not negating the possibility of single-parent households. No students outside of university attendance may be used as participants, to keep the participant pool as narrow and focused as possible.

Limitations

A similar study has not yet been executed in other Jewish communities. There is also a low level of external validity, and the results may not be generalizable to communities outside the one addressed here. There may also be a low level of external validity, and the results may not transfer to communities outside the one addressed here, except among other Jewish communities in America. The author’s personal bias that many in our community are closed-minded and commonly adapt authoritarian parenting practices that may lead to more of an increase in alcohol drinking frequency when compared to other communities will be addressed by focusing more closely on the parenting style evidence-based questionnaire and how it influences with the drinking frequency questionnaire. A reasonable measure taken to address the limitations is the application of other theoretical frameworks that further complement healthy attachment practices within the scope of child development.

Significance of the Study

Alcohol intake among adolescent Jews has increased since 2005, but the precise amount of increase remains unclear and understudied (Fogel, 2005). Therefore, the proposed study adds the dimension of culture to fill a gap in the literature on Jewish adolescent alcohol use and parenting. The study will clearly address the limitations and gap of the Jewish culture that has alcohol use embedded to all its rituals (Glass, 1999). Earlier studies did not focus on any cultural aspects as control variables for the study of the relationships between parenting styles and alcohol use by adolescents (Bahr & Hoffmann, 2010; Balhorn, Cheong, Patock-Peckham, & Nagoshi, 2001; Beck et al., 2004; Fogel, 2005, Larimer & Conce, 2007; Njenga, 2005; Peckham & Lopez, 2007). Investigating the relationship of parenting styles and alcohol consumption patterns in adolescents may reveal the need for better intervention programs or community health initiatives (Bahr & Hoffman, 2012; Changalwa et al., 2012; Peckham & Lopez, 2007).

Alcohol intake among adolescent Jews has increased since 2005, but the precise amount of increase remains unclear and understudied (Fogel, 2005). Therefore, the proposed study adds the dimension of culture to fill a gap in the literature on Jewish adolescent alcohol use and parenting. The study will clearly address the limitations and gap of the Jewish culture that has alcohol use embedded to all its rituals (Glass, 1999). Earlier studies did not focus on any cultural aspects as control variables for the study of the relationships between parenting styles and alcohol use by adolescents (Bahr & Hoffmann, 2010; Balhorn, Cheong, Patock-Peckham, & Nagoshi, 2001; Beck et al., 2004; Fogel, 2005, Larimer & Conce, 2007; Njenga, 2005; Peckham & Lopez, 2007).This study holds the potential to lead to positive social change by bringing to light cultural aspects of potential drinking hazards from easy accessibility to alcohol. Investigating the relationship of parenting styles and alcohol consumption patterns in adolescents may reveal the need for better intervention programs or community health initiatives (Bahr & Hoffman, 2012; Changalwa et al., 2012; Peckham & Lopez, 2007).

Organization of the Study Comment by Microsoft Office User: This is not a heading in the rubric. This would go under summary after the paragraph that you have below.Ok. This Was Rearranged.

The information provided in Chapter 1 included the background of the study, the theoretical foundation, an introduction to the methodology used, definition of terms and significance of the study. Chapter 2 presents a critical review of the literature focusing on the role of parents and parenting styles. Furthermore, child development theories and their frameworks will be discussed, including attachment, early bonding, and family involvement. Research on drinking frequency among youth is also presented. The chapter concludes with an overview of how the variables of parenting styles might influence drinking frequency.

Summary

There are few documented studies examining the relationship of parenting styles and alcohol use frequency of college and rabbinical college students in the American Jewish community. The proposed study will be undertaken to reveal a new dimension of possible perceived parenting style relationship with alcohol drinking frequency from a cultural lens within the U.S. Jewish community. The information provided in Chapter 1 included the background of the study, the theoretical foundation, an introduction to the methodology used, definition of terms and significance of the study. Chapter 2 presents a critical review of the literature focusing on the role of parents and parenting styles. Furthermore, child development theories and their frameworks will be discussed, including attachment, early bonding, and family involvement. Research on drinking frequency among youth is also presented. The chapter concludes with an overview of how the variables of parenting styles might influence drinking frequency.

Chapter 3 will include information about the proposed quantitative methodology, research design, and procedure for examining drinking frequencies and parenting styles. The results of the data collection will be provided in Chapter 4, and the research results, findings, recommendations for future research, and social implications will be provided in Chapter 5. The degree to which parenting styles influence college age drinking frequency within the Jewish community remains unknown because earlier studies did not include the concept of cultural context (Beck et al., 2004) and these issues are explored further in chapter 2 below.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Introduction

As noted in the introductory chapter, there has been an increase in alcohol intake among adolescent Jews since 2005 (Fogel, 2005). The purpose of this investigation was to find out if any link existed between the style of parenting and attitudes on use of alcohol among Jewish youth. Included in this chapter is a review of the literature on the use of alcohol among Jewish youth and the influence of parenting on decisions regarding alcohol usage. The topics discussed are alcohol use and gender, youth alcohol use, parenting style and alcohol use, and the prevalence of alcohol use among the young Jews.

Literature was accessed via EBSCOhost, Questia and PubMed to find peer-reviewed, recent, and relevant journal articles about parenting style and alcohol use, particularly within the Jewish faith. Keywords used in the search for relevant material included parental style, protective factors, attitude, alcohol use, questionnaire, and quantitative study. This literature review was interpreted using an attachment theory lens based on its focus on parent-child relationships which, as noted above, have been shown to have an effect on attitudes about alcohol. Attachment theory researchers are interested in the bonds and relations between individuals, especially lasting relationships such as parent-child bonds and associations between couples (Bowlby, 1978). This chapter is organized as follows:subheadings that will include theoretical framework, the prevalence of alcohol use among adolescents, a discussion concerning the health effects of drinking alcohol (especially to excess), and the factors that are associated with adolescent drinking. In addition, an exploration concerning alcohol and peer pressure, alcohol and family, attitudes and alcohol use and parenting style and alcohol use is followed by a discussion concerning parenting styles, parenting influences on the development of alcohol abuse and dependence, general parenting effects on child outcomes and parenting effects on alcohol abuse of offspring. Further, this chapter explores Judaism and alcohol use, alcohol use and gender differences in the Jewish religion, and alcohol use among Jewish college students. Finally, a brief description of the study’s methods is followed by a summary of the chapter’s findings.

Theoretical Framework

Attachment Theory

Bowlby (1978) first advanced understanding about attachment theory over 30 years ago. The author explained the primary parent-infant bond, which is vital for development and survival. As conceptualized by Bowlby (1978), attachment is grounded in ethology, which is the study of human behavior from a biological perspective. Bowlby (1978) described how infants’ smiling, crying, clinging and seeking closeness cultivate the parent-infant bond and boost survival. Secure attachment has been proven to be vital to healthy teen adjustment. Research indicates that the parent attachment role alters as the child grows (Choon & Hasbullah, 2013). Small children, for example, seek physical availability and closeness for comfort in times of distress (Berson & Baggerly, 2009).

By contrast, though, teens do not require the same level of closeness; comfort can be derived from being aware that their parents support and understand them even in those instances where the parent is not physically present (Berson & Baggerly, 2009). Nevertheless, researchers have found parental attunement and understanding are critical for maintaining attachment security in the teenage phase, particularly as adolescents grow older and seek more autonomy in their lives. Parental ability to sustain goal-directed connections with children is also imperative for maintaining good parent-child relations, and the ability to sustain goal-directed connections has been found to be especially challenging as parent-child disputes rise during adolescence (Moretti & Peled, 2004).

Since the adolescence period is frequently characterized by emotional problems that can have significant implications for social development and adaptation, it is important to understand the social contexts in which adolescents are raised and the effects these have on their emotional development (Nyarko, 2012). In this regard, Nyarko (2012) emphasized that, “In relation to the emotional development of adolescents, important questions to be addressed are how their relationships with their parents and peers contribute in improving or undermining their emotional development” (p. 162). An important component of emotional development is the prudent use of alcohol, especially during the formative adolescent years.

Social bond theory and social development theory have been utilized to explain why people engage in particular behaviors. Social development theory was developed in 1962 (Vygotsky, 1978). Its basis is that social interaction comes before development. Social development theory focuses on the interaction or connection between individuals and the environment in which they operate. Vygotsky argued that social development depends on social interactions, which means cognitive development occurs only through interactions with other individuals (Bodrova & Leong, 2007). Vygotsky (1978) was also of the opinion that children learned from those around them, such as a parent, a peer, or a teacher.

The social bond theory was also utilized to assess the link between attitudes toward use of alcohol and religion in adolescents within the Jewish community. It was developed by Hirschi in 1969 and was fist utilized as a tool to evaluate juvenile criminal delinquency (Hirschi, 1969). There are four key elements of social development theory: commitment, attachment, involvement, and acceptance of the rules of the society (Misztal, 2013). If any of these four elements is missing, there is a higher likelihood negative behaviors will develop. The first element is attachment, and an attachment is described as a bond that one has to his or her family or the community. The second element is commitment, which involves the investment of time, money, or effort. The third element is involvement, characterized by participation in activities. The final element is belief, whereby individuals accept the rules of society (Brown & Prinstein, 2011). In summary, Durkin, Wolfe and May (2007) reported that, “Social bond theory assumes that the motivation for deviant behavior is present in everyone, and concerns itself with the factors that keep an individual from engaging in deviance” (p. 735).

Utilizing concepts drawn from attachment and social bond theories and based on the study’s guiding research questions, it is possible to demonstrate that the attitudes of adolescents toward alcohol can be influenced by their social environment and the activities in which they participate. For example, children in the Jewish community learn how to use alcohol early in their lives (Snyder, 1978). Fathers drink during Sabbath and other religious holidays including the four cups of wine during Passover (Snyder, 1978). If children are not prevented from joining in on these holiday festivities, they may grow up with a view that drinking is a harmless part of their religion (Snyder, 1978).

Religion is a form of social control (Etzioni, 2008). Although researchers have examined the relationship between religiosity and alcohol use by adolescents, there remains a dearth of timely and relevant studies concerning religious affiliation and binge drinking (Dunn, 2009). The social bond theory indicated having a bond to religion or society can prevent a person from engaging in behaviors that are not accepted by the society (Durkin et al., 2007). As mentioned previously, peers can influence behavior (Almodovar et al., 2006).

Social development and social bond theories are appropriate for the current study because their use provides insight about interactions between people and community (Kuss & Griffiths, 2011). The objective for the current study was to examine the link between Judaism and attitudes toward alcohol use. Jewish adolescents are religious and will therefore show all the four elements of the social bond theory. Alcohol is used in many parts of the Jewish religion; therefore, many children will grow up believing alcohol use is an acceptable part of life (Levin, 2014).

Social Learning Theory

A growing body of evidence has confirmed the powerful effects of peer pressure on young people’s alcohol consumption behaviors (Miller & Jennings, 2008). Young people who have friends who use alcohol are far more likely to share their attitudes and behaviors concerning alcohol consumption (Miller & Jennings, 2006). Friendship, combined with pressures to conform to group norms, can result in exposure to social settings that involve consuming alcohol (Miller & Jennings, 2006). Social learning theory provided a useful framework in which these types of behaviors can be more readily understood, due in large part to the theory’s generalizability and its focus on what adolescents gain or lose through alcohol consumption (Miller & Jennings, 2006).

The fundamental tenets of social learning theory maintain that adolescent behaviors are heavily influenced by the rewards and punishments associated with different types of behaviors (Maney & Higham-Gardill, 2009). In this regard, Maney and Higham-Gardill (2009) reported that, “In this scenario, adolescent alcohol use depends on the extent to which a behavior is perceived as more or less desirable. Drinking for the first time, for example, during an enjoyable party among friends, may be perceived as emotionally reinforcing and thereby defined by the adolescent as desirable” (p. 158). Therefore, social learning theory adds a valuable element to the theoretical framework used in the study proposed herein. Likewise, Baumrind’s parenting styles model can be used to evaluate the efficacy of different parenting styles on alcohol consumption levels among young people as discussed below.

Baumrind’s (1991, 2005) Parenting Styles Model

The two-dimensional parenting factors (i.e., warmth and control) result in Baumrind’s parenting style model that includes authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive parenting approaches (Dwalry & Fayad, 2013). According to Baumrind’s parenting styles model (1991, 2005), authoritarian parents tend to focus on obedience and control by using punishments and demand – unquestioning obedience from their children. By contrast, permissive parents tend to allow their children more flexibility in determining which behaviors are appropriate and in making their own decisions with little intervention from parents (Dwalry & Fayad, 2013). Authoritative parents, however, tend to exercise parenting styles that contain elements of both authoritarian and permissive parenting styles, and this parenting style has been shown to have a positive effect on young people’s self-esteem, self-reliance and emotional security (Dwalry & Fayad, 2013). Taken together, Baumrind’s (1991, 2005) parenting styles model contributes a valuable element to the proposed study’s theoretical framework, a contribution that is needed in view of the prevalence of alcohol use among adolescents and young adults as discussed further below.

Prevalence of Alcohol Use among Adolescents

The U.S. Surgeon General (2007) stated that alcohol is the most widely abused substance among adolescents. Adolescence is generally defined by Black’s Law Dictionary (1990, p. 49) as “that age which follows puberty and precedes the age of majority” in the U.S. Therefore, the age of adolescence varies according to individual as well as jurisdiction, but the ages 13 to 17 years can be generally regarded as encompassing the adolescent years (Reagan & Yankey, 2015). The CDC (2009) determined an estimated 21% of all adults in the U.S. in this age group tasted their first alcoholic drink at 13 years of age.

Approximately 73% of U.S. high school students and 70% of New York state high school students (excluding those in New York City) reported using alcohol at least once (CDC, 2011). Data from 2005 indicated 76% of New York state high school students reported using alcohol at least once during their lifetimes (CDC, 2011). The CDC (2011) also reported more alcohol use among adolescent females (74.2%) compared to adolescent males (70.8%); however, the number of males who drank before they turned 13 years old was much higher than females (23.7% for males, 18.1% for females) (CDC, 2009). A higher number of females (49%) than males (35%) admitted they received a drink from another person (CDC, 2009). These are important issues because they directly relate to the inordinately high rate of alcohol use among adolescents in the U.S. today, a trend that also has some serious implications for these young people’s health.

Health Effects of Drinking Alcohol

There are both long-term and immediate effects associated with alcohol consumption. For example, Paul and Smith-Hunter (2011) emphasized that, “The abuse of alcohol is widely recognized as a major social problem with significant consequences related to health, safety and other societal factors” (p. 134). Some of the immediate effects on health are poor judgment, risky behavior, violence and traffic accidents (Brown & Tapert, 2004). Almost 37% of all adolescent traffic deaths in the year 2000 were related to alcohol use (Brown & Tapert, 2004). Alcohol poisoning and miscarriages have been identified as effects of consuming alcohol (Kesmodel, Wisborg, Olsen, Henriksen & Schele et alr, 2003).

Some of the other health and social concerns associated with alcohol use include liver cirrhosis, loss of family, unemployment, and psychiatric problems such as neurological issues, depression, and stroke (CDC, 2012). The Centers for Disease Control (USA)DC (2012) has also linked cardiovascular problems to high consumption levels of alcohol. In addition, the research to date using animals indicate sensitivity to alcohol is especially high during adolescence, and chronic levels of alcohol use during the adolescent period have also been shown to increase cellular death that may have severe implications that can persist into later adulthood (Splete, 2008).

While more research is needed in this area, the limited studies to date that have used human adolescents also indicate that higher levels of alcohol use may be associated with a reduced hippocampal volume (Splete, 2008). Taken together, it is clear that alcohol use in general and severe alcohol use by adolescents can be a danger that should not be ignored by teenagers when confronted with the decision whether to drink or not, but they are also faced with a broad array of factors that influence this decision as discussed below.

Factors Associated with Adolescent Drinking

There are different reasons linked to adolescent alcohol use (Hayes & Curry, 2010). Although there are a number of different reasons, most are related in one way or another to developmental issues. For instance, Splete (2008) reports that, “A a complex mixture of biologic, psychological, and social evidence suggests that alcohol consumption in children and adolescents is a developmental issue” (p. 24). The various reasons that adolescents use alcohol have been classified into social/interpersonal, contextual/cultural, and individual categories (Chawla, Neighbors, Lewis, Lee, & Larimer, 2007). Individual risk factors for higher levels of alcohol use include personality traits, physiological makeup, and various personal factors such as emotional state and performance in school (Chawla et al., 2007). Some of the social/interpersonal risk factors include discounts on alcohol purchases available from friends and family members. Alcohol use may be perceived as acceptable is an adolescent sees another member of the family drinking alcohol (Cerezo & Mendez, 2013). Cultural/contextual risk factors include racism, availability of alcohol, and economics (Cerezo & Mendez, 2013).

The other risk factors include social acceptance, peer pressure, boredom, curiosity and little to no parental control (Hawkins, Catalano, & Miller, 1992; Petraitis, Flay, & Miller, 1995). The research to date also indicates that individual religiosity levels among adolescents can serve as a protective factor against alcohol use and misuse, but additional research is needed concerning the effects of religious context of parenting on alcohol use and misuse by adolescents (Li, 2011).

Alcohol and Peer Pressure

The social factors for the use of alcohol include environment, family, and peer groups (Paul & Smith-Hunter, 2011). The strongest factor in adolescent alcohol consumption is peer pressure (Hendricks & Savahi 2015; Hodge et al., 2001). Family dynamics also influence adolescent alcohol use. An adolescent with stronger family bonds will be less inclined to drink (Dunn, Kitts, Lewis, Goodrow & Scherzer, 2011). For instance, researchers have also indicated that peer influence plays a very important role in the use of alcohol (Cornelis & Cauberghe, 2014). Likewise, Almadovar et al. (2006) also found that peer influence played a major role in adolescent alcohol use.

Peer pressure becomes even more powerful as young people grow up and spend less time with their families and parents and more time with their peers (Splete, 2008). Increasing peer pressure has been associated with earlier use of alcohol and increasing alcohol use among young people aged 10 to 15 years (Splete, 2008). According to Lashbrook (2000), “Peer pressure is a specific instance of social influence, which typically produces conformity to a particular way of acting or thinking” (p. 747).In reality, it is little wonder that peers are influential among adolescents based on the increasing time that is spent with these individuals outside the family home (Lashbrook, 2000).

Peer pressure tends to increase in influence compared to sources, including parents, during the transition from childhood into adolescence, and acmes by the ninth grade with respect to antisocial behaviors (Lashbrook, 2000). It is important to note, though, that the growing influence of peers on adolescents does not replace parental influence which remains salient but is lessened over time (Lashbrook, 2000). In this regard, Lashbrook (2000) concludes that, “Parental socialization remains important, although the exact balance between parents and peers varies depending on the specific behavior or belief, as well as family qualities, such as degree of bonding and closeness” (p. 747). In addition, adolescents’ families remain an important factor in alcohol use among young people of all ages as discussed below.

Alcohol and Family

Family acceptance may influence adolescent alcohol use (Messler & Quevillon, 2014). For instance, Messler and Quevillon (2014) emphasize that, “Perceived parental approval of alcohol use has been shown to directly predict alcohol related consequences among adolescents” (p. 45). In fact, even though parental influence on children tends to lessen as they grow older, parents can still have a major influence on their children’s alcohol usage even after they leave home (Messler & Quevillon, 2014). Likewise, Aldomodovar et al. (2006) discovered that acceptance of alcohol by parents was linked to drinking at a very young age, drunkenness, and binge drinking.

The family environment and alcohol use was also the focus of a study by King and Vidourek (2010) that found significant differences in alcohol use among different ethnicities in the U.S. For example, almost half (47.6%) of Hispanic adolescents report having consumed alcohol during the previous month versus 47.3% for white adolescents and just over one-third (34.5%) for African-American adolescents (King & Vidourek, 2010).

Moreover, King and Vidourek (2010) also note that drinking in Hispanic families begins at early ages compared to white and African-American families, and this factor has been attributed to higher levels of alcohol use later in life. For instance, King and Vidourek emphasize that, “Hispanic youth begin drinking at an earlier age than white youth with 29.0% of Hispanic youth drinking alcohol before the age of 13, compared to 21.5% of white youth” (p. 232). Earlier first-uses of alcohol have been consistently linked with higher rates of violence, suicide, delinquency and alcohol use among adolescents (King & Vidourek, 2010). Indeed, King and Vidourek conclude that, “Those who drink before age 14 are four times more likely to develop alcohol abuse and dependence than those who begin drinking at age 21” (p. 232).

More research is needed to understand the factors that influence initial alcohol use in children, and the data are not conclusive as to whether children who first experiment with drinking when they are younger than age 12 years are at greater risk than those who initiate alcohol use at age 13-14 years. Social contexts, including drinking habits in the child’s home and the child’s exposure to alcohol through mass media, contribute to children’s attitudes toward alcohol and expectations of its effects.

Children in alcoholic families are at increased risk for developing alcohol-related problems. Based on data from the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey published in 2000, 15% of children aged 17 years and younger in the U.S. were living with at least one adult who met criteria for alcohol abuse or dependence within a year of the survey. Although alcohol use at a young age is a problem, some parents opt to introduce children to responsible drinking patterns within a family context, and any public or school-based alcohol abuse prevention programs must take family and cultural considerations into account in order to be effective (Splete, 2008). Besides the family, other factors contribute to adolescents’ attitudes about alcohol use as discussed further below.

Attitudes and Alcohol Use

As adolescents grow older, they also become more highly attuned to external societal influences, and mature in their perceptions of cultural messages from their peers and mass media (Splete, 2008). Researchers have shown that third-grade students most often associate alcohol use with undesirable outcomes such as acting out of control but by age 10 years, these same young people have formed much more positive attitudes about alcohol use (Splete, 2008). Notwithstanding the powerful impact of peer pressure on adolescents, attitudes about alcohol use are clearly shaped by the constant stream of media messages these young people receive as well. For instance, Splete points out that, “Adolescents are increasingly sensitive to peer behaviors, and the mass media could serve as a ‘superpeer’ in forming their thinking, they said. Movies and television aimed at adolescents often show teenagers drinking and rarely show them suffering any negative consequences” (2008, p. 24).

Attitudes about alcohol are also shaped by the societies in which young people live. In this regard, Charen (1995) points out that, “Societies with low rates of alcohol abuse share certain features. Among Jews and Italians, for example, alcohol is introduced to children at an early age, is associated with family and religious events, and is not stigmatized. Though drinking is regarded neutrally or positively, becoming drunk is treated harshly” (p. 7). Clearly, social forces serve to shape adolescent attitudes about alcohol use, and as these social forces are internalized, individual attitudes become more concrete.

For instance, Chawla et al. (2007) conducted a study to examine personal attitudes as the mediator of the significance of religion and use of alcohol. An Internet-based survey was completed by student participants who were between 17 and 19 years of age to determine how much alcohol they had consumed. The survey was also used to determine the place of religion in their personal attitudes toward drinking. The authors discovered that personal factors were the biggest mediating factor between the significance of religion and the use of alcohol. The people who had held religion in high regard tended to hold negative attitudes towards the consumption of alcohol and did not drink. Those respondents who did not hold negative attitudes toward the consumption of alcohol tended to believe religion was not vital, and they did not have reservations about consuming alcohol. Participants were predominantly Christian, atheists, or those who did not specify with a particular religion. The response rate was low and there was a possibility of selection bias.

Likewise, Rollocks and Dass (2007) evaluated what influence religion had on alcohol consumption among the adolescents of Trinidad, Tobago, and St. Lucia. The sample frame included those form several different religions including students who identified as Anglican, Roman Catholic, Seventh Day Adventist, Baptist, Pentecostal, Presbyterian, Muslim and Hindu (Rollocks & Dass, 2007). Stratified random sampling was used and questionnaires were completed by adolescents within six schools. The predominant religion was Roman Catholicism. The Hindus reported a higher level of use of alcohol than the others in the sample, which was in concurrence with other studies that had been carried out (Rollocks & Dass, 2007; Luczak, Shea, Carr, Li, & Wall, 2002). The next highest reported level of alcohol use was among those who identified as Muslim. Although Rollocks and Ali (2005) failed to find a statistically significant difference among ethnic groups with regard to alcohol consumption; they concluded that some other factors had a bigger contribution to the consumption of alcohol than did sociocultural factors. In a study was conducted in Thailand by Newman et al. (2006), the authors found 28% of secondary school students practicing Buddhism did drink alcohol compared to 35% of those within the same group of students who did not practice Buddhism. Likewise, the Irish society also has different views about alcohol use compared to other societies. For instance, Charen (1995) advises that in Ireland, “Drinking is done among men outside the home. It is not associated with food or religious rites. It is introduced as a rite of passage to adulthood” (p. 7).Indeed, drinking is even encouraged in some cases as a panacea for the troubles that the human condition invariably encounters. In this regard, Charen adds that, “Moreover, being drunk [in Ireland] is viewed indulgently and humorously. Indeed, the Irish are urged to ‘drown their sorrows’ in drink” (p. 7). Besides these wide-ranging and powerful influences on young people’s attitudes about alcohol use, parenting styles has also been shown to have a major influence on adolescent alcohol use as discussed further below.

Parenting Style and Alcohol Use

There is a growing body of evidence that the type of parenting style used can have significant differences on adolescent behaviors, including alcohol use levels. For instance, a study by Estep and Olson (2011) found that, “An increase in authoritative parenting was related to lower rates of alcohol use and deviant behaviors” (p. 831).According to Estep and Olson (2011), “The authoritative parenting style is one in which parents display both a high degree of warmth and involvement and a high degree of strictness and supervision” (p. 831). The authoritative parenting style differs from the authoritarian parenting style which uses a low warmth/involvement and high strictness/supervision approach, the permissive parenting style which involves high warmth/involvement and low strictness / supervision levels and the neglectful parenting style which is characterized by low strictness / supervision and low warmth/involvement levels (Estep & Olson, 2011).

There is also growing evidence that points to the possibility that alcohol consumption — especially binge drinking — negatively affects adolescent development and may increase alcohol dependence risk later on in adulthood (Squeglia et al., 2009; Grant & Dawson, 1997). Experts are advising parents to prevent or delay children’s alcohol use (Messler & Quevillon, 2014). The style of parenting will determine a child’s response to advice about the use of alcohol (Ballantine, 2009). As indicated in chapter one above, each parenting situation is unique, but they can be categorized into four main styles by how parents interact with their children:

Authoritarian parents are those who have the tendency of exerting higher levels of discipline and control with low responsiveness and warmth. They may, for example, punish a child for bad grades, and not reward a child for good grades.

Permissive parents are those who have a tendency to exert low levels of discipline and control with high responsiveness and warmth. Their view of grades, for example, may be that any grade is acceptable, and they may fail to punish bad behavior leading to poor grades.

Neglectful parents are those who have a tendency to exert low levels of discipline and control coupled with low responsiveness and warmth. In the case of these parents, there is no concern about the child’s performance in school.

Authoritative parents are those who have a tendency to exert high levels of discipline and control coupled with high responsiveness and warmth. In this style of parenting, parents praise good performance but thoughtfully discipline poor grades and offer guidance on how grades can be improved (Ballatine, 2009).

Irrespective of the developmental outcome examined (i.e., substance abuse, academic success, or body image), children under the guidance of authoritative parents performed better than children brought up by parents who used other parenting styles (Ballantine, 2009), an outcome that was more apparent in the area of underage alcohol consumption (Simons-Morton et al., 2001). These outcomes can be explained, at least in part, by the fact that children with authoritative parents learn early problem solving approaches and how to express themselves, which helps them protect themselves against psychological dysfunctions that precede 2005-2015 the misuse of alcohol (Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2007). Authoritative parents promote discipline and provide support, which is a good combination for building decision-making skills in young people (Ballantine, 2009). Good decision-making skills help children make informed decisions when they are faced with important issues such as alcohol or other substance use (Steinberg et al., 1992).

The relations among parental views on effectiveness in preventing teen substance abuse, teen competence, substance use and parenting practices were studied (Chang et al., 2013). Chang et al. (2013) demonstrated that parental effectiveness is a critical contributor in promotion of teen competence, enhancement of parenting practices, and reduction in teen substance consumption. Parenting style research has also been conducted by Adler (Milevsky, Schlechter, Netter & Keehn, 2007), who added to what is known about the definitions and classifications of parenting. Adler’s autocratic parenting theory was analogous to Baumrind’s (2005) authoritarian parenting style. Moreover, Adlerian theory’s permissive style of parenting is considered detrimental because permissive parenting does not inculcate a sense of accomplishment in children (McVittie & Best, 2009). Permissive and autocratic styles of parenting do not successfully turn kids into responsible individuals after growing up (McVittie & Best, 2009). Democratic parenting, however, is deemed a more suitable style of parenting, from Adler’s perspective, because of autonomy, behavioral compliance, and psychological adjustment ideals (Pressley, 2013).

Mills (2010) indicated that student results and general parenting style were not appreciably linked; the relation was not moderated by locus of control. Additionally, gender and style of parenting were also not appreciably linked. These research outcomes on parental practice of formulating domestic rules, however, were at odds with earlier research findings, such as Baumrind (2005). Parents who adopt authoritative reasoning with their teenage children for clearing up their own standing, while simultaneously taking into account their child’s standpoint, are believed to endorse and value teen autonomy; their behavior with their teenage children is similar to their behavior with adult cohorts (Sorkhabi, 2010). This may shed light on why authoritative reasoning is linked with few disputes and harmonious relations in the current study. Research outcomes depict that reciprocity exhibited in authoritative reasoning is linked to lower incidences of conflicts (Sorkhabi, 2010). This is possibly attained by enhancement of mutual understanding in dyadic perceptions, as it decreases parental authority’s negative potential (to force or extricate), and by enhancing the inclination to cooperate with each other (Sorkhabi, 2010).

A permissive style of parenting proves to be the least tricky, and children growing up in such backgrounds are less likely to display criminal, delinquent, and aberrant behaviors (Spraitz, 2011). Predictably, children whose parents spurned or ignored them were more liable to display criminal, delinquent and aberrant behaviors. In the meantime, authoritative and authoritarian styles projected hardly any behaviors. Regardless of differences in individuals (male/female; white/non-white; country jail prisoner/college student), the parenting style they experienced in childhood predicts behavior. Higher perspective taking (PT) by mothers indicated lesser externalizing issues in sons only if high clear expectation (CE) levels were shown by mothers (Sher-Censor, Assor & Oppenheim, 2014). Therefore, when parent-teen conflict occurs, parent understanding of opposing viewpoints held by their teen, together with clear behavior expectation statements by the parent, may be linked to improved socio-emotional performance of teenage boys. Study findings agree with earlier research above (e.g., Baumrind, 2005). As noted in the introductory chapter, there are a number of different parenting styles characterized in the academic literature and these different styles are discussed further below.

Parenting Styles

The effects of various parenting styles on children’s behaviors have been an area of interest for researchers. Studies conducted on early childhood development have identified four main types of parenting styles: neglectful, permissive, authoritative and authoritarian (Ballantine, 2009). A parenting style is a set of attitudes communicated to a child creating an emotional environment in which the behaviors of the parents are expressed (Ballantine, 2009). Parenting styles usually communicate parent attitudes toward their children rather than their attitudes about specific behavior (Barnes et al., 2000). Authoritative parents have the following basic characteristics:

High expectations of obedience or compliance to parental rules and instructions,

An open and interactive dialogue on the rules and instructions, and,

A child-oriented style of parenting that features a warm relationship between the parent and the child (Ballatine, 2009).

Thus, according to Ballantine (2009), authoritative parenting produces positive effects. Authoritarian parenting has a similar approach to the authoritative style in terms of the high expectations of obedience to parent rules and instructions; however, authoritative parenting entails the utilization of more forceful techniques to gain compliance.

There is little to no open parent-child dialogue when the parent ascribes to an authoritarian style. The authoritarian style is parent-centered, and results in a cold atmosphere, often with negative effects. Permissive parenting is characterized by low behavioral expectations of compliance to rules and directions (Ballantine, 2009). Finally, neglectful parenting is similar to permissive parenting with low behavioral expectations (NIAAA, 2013; Perozzi et al., 2007). The negative and harmful effects of neglectful parenting continued to increase over time (Perozzi, 2007). In a previous study, and somewhat related to these findings, Perozzi et al. (2007) had posited that parents might benefit from understanding how their children perceive them.

In determining the relationship between parenting style and the legitimacy of moral authority in terms of tobacco and alcohol abuse among young adolescents, Jackson (2002) noted that adolescents raised in authoritarian, permissive, or neglectful styles of parenting had a higher likelihood of denying parental authority and using alcohol and cigarettes. Adolescents who were being raised in authoritative homes were six to seven times more likely to deny parental authority concerning drug abuse compared to those who were being raised in unresponsive or neglectful settings. Therefore, highly demanding and highly responsive parenting approaches were linked to adolescents who regarded their parents as being an important influence in terms of alcohol and tobacco use. The study by Jackson (2002), surveyed 1,220 6th and 8th graders from a North Carolina school district. Students were provided with self-report questionnaires. The findings supported the results of the research done by Baumrind (1978), and Darling and Steinberg (1993), who found that authoritative parenting is closely linked to lower demands for freedom from parental authority during adolescence; and therefore those adolescents with parents using an authoritative style of parenting had lower resistance to parental control or influence.

Patock-Peckhamand Morgan-Lopez (2006) surveyed 421 college students in their study of parenting styles and found an association between parent-child gender match, alcohol use, and parenting type. The parenting style of a parent of the same gender as the student exerted the most influence on the student’s drug and alcohol use and the consequences of that use. The researchers also identified high parent permissiveness was correlated with high child impulsiveness. Moreover, the researchers also found that when the fathers were more authoritative, their sons were less impulsive; however, when mothers are more authoritarian, their daughters were more impulsive.

Even though both authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles involved high control, the authoritative style includes more warmth than the authoritarian style of parenting. Williams and Hine (2002) set out to determine the likely effects of parent permissiveness on alcohol consumption and alcohol misuse rates among 320 Australian high school students. Specifically, they tried to ascertain if attitudes towards subjective norms, alcohol use and perceived behavior control affected alcohol use. Researchers found that three variables fully mediated the possible effects of parent variables on alcohol use by adolescents, and the meditational models were the same for both males and females (Perozzi, 2007).

In general, literature on the issue of parenting styles suggested that the authoritative parenting style was best for affecting adolescent alcohol use. It also seems that the adolescent’s perception of the parenting style has more influence than the parent’s perception of his or her style. Studies also show there is a need for further investigation into how parenting styles influence adolescent alcohol use based on the gender of the child (Perozzi, 2007).

For the current study, perceived parenting style was a variable of independent family systems. It was expected that authoritative parenting styles would bring about lower levels of adolescent alcohol consumption and lower levels of binge drinking. Moreover, there is interest in determining how parenting style, parental variables, and parental control are connected. Further research into these connections may enable prediction of adolescent alcohol use and binge drinking.

Parenting Influences on the Development of Alcohol Abuse and Dependence

Over the past 100 years, researchers have increasingly explored the role of the family in the development, prevention, course, and treatment of alcohol abuse and addiction or dependence. Many of these investigations have concentrated on children of alcoholics (COAs), who are usually more prone to becoming alcoholics than are the children of non-alcoholics (non-COAs). Empirical research into the topic of alcohol use in adolescence has been conducted studying the importance of genetics, personality and other psychosocial traits, and the evaluation of other variables such as ethnicity, social class, and family structure (Gruber & Celan, 2007). The focus of the current research is the influence of the family environment – especially the parenting influences that are related to the development of alcohol abuse and subsequent dependence. The focus of ongoing research in this area involves two types of family influences: alcohol-specific and non-alcohol-specific effects. Alcohol-specific effects show the influence of parental use and abuse of alcohol on the adolescent’s use and abuse behavior. It is reasonable to posit that these influences are more pertinent to children of alcoholics than to children of non-alcoholics. In contrast, non-alcohol specific effects entail more general characteristics of the family environment that have the likelihood of increasing the adolescent’s deviant behavior, including alcohol use (Gruber & Celan, 2007).

General Parenting Effects on Child Outcomes

The dominance of the family unit with regard to a child’s cognitive and social development has been the basis of child development studies and family studies for over five decades. An analysis of the research to date provides some useful insights concerning general parenting effects on adolescent children. The first conclusion made from a review of the extant literature is that all family-based variables that can influence a child outcome (i.e., marital and sibling influences, parental dispositions and the socio-cultural context the family operates in) affect the interaction between the child and the parent. Second, the parent-child interaction is characterized essentially by two main parenting dimensions: nurturance (i.e., warmth and encouragement) and control (i.e., discipline and supervision). Disturbances in any of these dimensions can have harsh and far-reaching effects on the child’s cognitive and socio-emotional development (Jackson-Newsom & Buchanan, 2008).

Parenting Effects on Alcohol Abuse of Offspring

There is a close relationship between antisocial behavior, adolescent delinquency, child conduct disorder, and alcohol abuse, with adult antisocial behavior and adult alcoholism (Jacob & Leonard, 1994). Nearly 20% of alcoholics, for example, have antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), which is characterized by a persistent disregard for and infringement or violation of the rights of others. In fact, ASPD linked alcoholism is the most encountered alcoholism subtype. According to Jacob and Johnson, the close relationship between alcoholism and ASPD implies that parent-child interactions that allow the development of antisocial behavior play a crucial role in the etiology of alcoholism of both COAs and non-COAs. Therefore, researchers must consider mediating factors that can increase or decrease the risks associated with parental alcoholism, including parental personality, parent-child interaction, child personality and temperament, and co-morbid parental symptomatology (Hanington & Ramchandani, 2009).

Judaism and Alcohol Use

Alcohol has been used and abused by some civilizations since time immemorial (Charen, 1995). According to Charen (1995), though, “The severity and prevalence of alcohol abuse has differed dramatically in different societies. Some groups, like the Irish, have high rates of alcoholism and drunkenness, whereas others, like Italians, Jews and Chinese, consume alcohol regularly with few pathological excesses” (p. 7). These differences in severity and prevalence are due in large part to the role played by alcohol in Judaism. In Judaism, alcohol is an essential part of Sabbath and other religious celebrations (Snyder, 1978). On the Sabbath day, a cup of wine is taken in Kiddush during the commencement of each meal, and a cup of wine is also taken in Havdalah at the end of Sabbath (Snyder, 1978). Indeed, Posner (2014, para. 1) emphasizes that:

“Wine and intoxicating beverages are a fascinating subject when viewed from the Torah’s perspective. On one hand, we use wine for kiddush and havdallah on Shabbat and Jewish holidays, and many, many mitzvot are accompanied by a cup of wine. Blessings are recited on a cup of wine beneath the chupah (wedding canopy), at a circumcision, at a Pidyon Haben (the “Redemption of a Firstborn Son”), and let’s not forget the four cups of wine we drink at the Passover seder.”

Similarly, alcohol is a major component of celebrations during other Jewish holidays. Snyder described how alcohol is a specific part of Purim, where it is suggested that one drinks until he cannot distinguish between Mordechai and Haman. Ceremonies, such as weddings and other events, also include alcohol. Research has not been conducted, however, to examine the variations between different sects within Judaism and the potential impact of these differences. Still, empirical observations suggest that reform Jews are largely assimilated; many of them are intermarried with people from other cultures and have a more international view (pers. knowl.). Conservative Jews have similar views to Orthodox Jews concerning the use of alcohol. However Orthodox Jews observe stricter adherence to laws than the conservative and reform Jews; therefore, it is easier and more widely acceptable for adolescents to drink within this sect (Davis, 2012). Similarly, other religions have different sects and denominations that have different views or practices regarding alcohol use (Rollocks & Dass, 2007).

Knight et al. (2007) conducted a study to determine if there was an association between adolescent’s use of alcohol and religiousness or spirituality. Following a careful review of the extant literature, the authors determined there was a gap in the available literature focusing “on the protective association of religiousness and its potential for positive outcomes” (p. 350). Specifically, they pointed out that the factors of religiousness may differ from factors of spirituality. The authors posited that if physicians knew more about religious and spiritual constructs of adolescents, they would be able to intervene with targeted counseling efforts for youth involved with drugs and alcohol. Participants in the study were 12 to 18-year-olds who were receiving routine care at three primary care clinics in an East Coast city. The researchers were practicing physicians at the clinics (Knight et al., 2007).

The study was cross-sectional, prospective, and observational. They used convenience sampling and were able to enroll 305 adolescents into the study (Knight et al., 2007). Only those who could read and write English were invited to participate, and patients with severe disease or complex psychological issues were excluded. Demographic information was collected along with each applicant’s self-disclosed use of alcohol, cannabis, and other drugs. Each respondent also completed the Brief Multidimensional Measure of Religiousness/Spirituality, and a Spiritual Connectedness Scale.

The resulting data provided frequency information for basic demographics and for the resulting information from the spirituality scale scores. Logistic regression analysis was used to determine strength of relationships between alcohol use and spirituality. Results indicated that the spiritual construct of forgiveness was associated with lower risk of alcohol use, and they discussed the construct of forgiveness from trait and state perspectives. Noteworthy, their study “did not find that alcohol use during adolescence was significantly associated with religious preference” but they pointed out that their study was not designed to be able to fully examine the possible relationship (p. 353).

Overall, the authors concluded that forgiveness associated with religiosity can have a positive effect on adolescent alcohol use (Knight et al., 2007). Accordingly, Knight and his associates concluded that, “Forgiveness is associated with a lowered risk of drinking during adolescence” (2007, p. 363). In addition, Knight et al. (2007) suggested that additional research is needed to fully explore this relationship: “Future studies should examine this question and further explore the relationship between various aspects of forgiveness and substance use during adolescence, as well as the relationship between forgiveness and other high risk behaviors and mood states” (2007, p. 355).

Since previous research had shown that impulsive adolescents are at higher risk for substance abuse and related disorders, Von Dieman, Bassani, Fuchs, Szobot, and Pechansky (2008) set out to determine if there was an association between impulsivity, age at first drink, and substance use disorders in male adolescents in Brazil. The authors described their study as case-control research, and they recruited participants from public healthcare centers within a smaller region of a big city in Brazil. They carried out 63 face-to-face interviews with adolescent males. Demographic information was gathered, and participants’ substance abuse was measured using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI). The Barratt Impulsivity Scale (BIS 11) was used to measure impulsivity, and the adolescents were asked when they first willingly had a drink of alcohol to determine the age at which they first began to drink. Religiousness of each subject was determined by asking them if they felt they were religious or not, which was a yes or no response.

Von Dieman et al. (2008) utilized logistical regression to analyze survey responses. Results indicated the more impulsive the subject, the greater the likelihood for substance use disorder (Von Dieman et al., 2008). Age at first drink was also associated with substance use disorder, which matched with what was found in a review of the literature conducted. Those respondents who had their first drink later in life had a statistically significant reduced risk for substance use disorders; chance of substance use disorder was decreased for each year that alcohol use was delayed. It was also found that the greater the level of individual impulsivity, the greater the risk of substance use disorder (Von Dieman et al., 2008). Unlike the findings from the study conducted by Knight et al. (2007), von Dieman et al. (2008) failed to find a link between religiosity and substance abuse disorder. The authors pointed out, however, that this finding could have been due to the socio-demographic homogeneity of the sample population Knight et al., 2007). The authors called for future research to include longitudinal studies into the association of age at first drink and impulsivity.

Alcohol Use and Gender Differences in the Jewish Religion

In Judaism, men and women play different roles regarding alcohol use. Havdalah and Kiddush, two traditions of Sabbath, are performed with an alcoholic beverage, preferably wine (Snyder, 1978). The head of the household, usually a man, carries out these customs (Snyder, 1978). As previously discussed, males would be encouraged to drink to intoxication during Purim; however, the case was not the same for females (Werzberger, 2008).

Other authors, including Holmila and Raitasalo (2004), observed gender differences in the Jewish community with regard to alcohol use. The two noted that males did not restrain themselves and had many more alcohol-related problems compared to females. Based on their findings, Holmila and Raitasalo (2004) concluded that gender differences were a result of biological makeup, gender-specific roles, and social attitudes, which were congruent with the religious practices in Judaism. These gender-related differences indicate that male Jewish adolescents are at greater risk of experiencing negative healthcare and psychological outcomes due to greater alcohol consumption levels compared to their female counterparts, and these issues are discussed further below.

Alcohol Use among Jewish College Students

Research has been conducted about religion and alcohol use among college students in institutions where Judaism was among the religions represented. For instance, Peele (2006) reported that, “Differences in drinking have frequently been noted among religious groups in the U.S. and elsewhere, including among youth and college students. Drinking by Jews has been one special object of attention due to their apparently low level of drinking problems” (p. 67). Likewise, Charen (1995, p. 7) reported:

“Utter prohibition, such as that practiced by Mormons, is fraught with danger. A study of college students found that Mormons who do drink are far more likely to get drunk regularly than Jewish students who drink. The ‘forbidden fruit’ phenomenon is demonstrable and dangerous.”

A careful review of the extant literature, though, revealed there are no studies of alcohol use and Jewish adolescent high school students. These findings underscore the need to further research such as the study proposed herein.

Methods

As described further in Chapter 3 below, a quantitative design was utilized for the current study to achieve the above-stated research goals. A quantitative design is appropriate for theory testing and development of hypothesis, and allows for observation of particular variables (Creswell, 2003). A quantitative methodology can also help to determine how many individuals share a certain idea (Mann, 2003). A qualitative design would not be useful since it is more observational and explains individual patterns. Quantitative researchers utilize questionnaires, which is in contrast to qualitative approaches where open-ended interviews and observations are carried out (Creswell, 2003).

A cross sectional study design was utilized. This design was chosen because it allowed for data collection at one time (Neuman, 2003). Prevalence was investigated, and hypotheses were generated (Mann, 2003). Weaknesses associated with a quantitative cross-sectional design include the lack of capacity to measure incidence, challenges in interpreting relationships due to cause and effect, simple relationships are not clearly differentiated, and results depend on recall that can easily introduce bias into the study (Mann, 2003). The objective of using this design was to determine the primacy of attitudes in a population. The aim of the study was to determine if religion is linked with adolescent attitudes concerning alcohol use and actual alcohol use among Jewish adolescents. To understand the prevalence of alcohol use, the research will also involve the collection of quantifiable data concerning typical alcohol use by adolescent respondents using a questionnaire. This approach is congruent with previous quantitative, cross-sectional studies that have used questionnaires to inquire about alcohol and religion (Almodovar, et al., 2006). In sum, this study was designed to determine if parenting is associated with attitudes toward alcohol use. A cross sectional design (Francis & Mullen, 1995) will be used to determine the relationship between Judaism and the use of alcohol.

Summary

The extant literature regarding the relationship between parenting styles and attitudes toward alcohol use among Jewish adolescents was explored. Studies on this topic have shown that Judaism acts as a protective factor and influences adolescents’ decision to start drinking alcohol (Werzberger, 2008). The ease of access and abundance of alcohol in Judaism also plays a role (Werzbeger, 2008). This study has the potential to provide additional insight into traditions of the orthodox Jewish community with regard to alcohol consumption. Previous research in this area has not focused on Judaism as a whole, and little attention was paid to sects within Judaism; thus, it is difficult to ascertain if a certain sect has been sufficiently captured in the data. The fact that females do not have the same alcohol use and dependence as men was also of interest. Information provided in Chapter 3 below illuminates the best method for use in this study in order to evaluate the relationship between the Jewish religion and alcohol use among adolescents.

Chapter 3: Research Method

As noted in the introductory chapter, the purpose of this quantitative survey research will be to examine what parenting styles are associated with alcohol consumption among Jewish college students in the U.S. The nature of this study will be a quantitative method of analysis of variance (ANOVA) using two existing instruments, PAI and AUDIT, to examine the variable relationships in order to develop informed and timely answers to the study’s guiding research questions and to confirm or refute its hypotheses.

Buri’s (1991) parental authority questionnaire (PA1) was developed to measure the main parental styles: permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative from the point-of-view of the child. This survey consists of thirty items, divided into ten each for permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative styles. Likewise, the alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT, 2001) is a survey for adults used to identify risky drinking behaviors by asking about quantity and frequency of use. It was developed by the World Health Organization (WHO), and thus has a high degree of external validity. SurveyMonkey will be used as a national probability sample identifier of the U.S. Jewish population in the data collection. This chapter reiterates the study’s guiding research questions, describes the population/sample of interest, a comprehensive description of the two above-mentioned survey instruments, the procedures that will be followed during the research process, a description of the participants, measurements and limitations that are involved, as well as relevant ethical considerations. Finally, a summary concludes this chapter.

As also noted in the introductory chapter, the independent variable of interest to the proposed study is parenting style. In this study, parenting styles will be measured by the parental authority index (PAI) (Buri, 1991). Perceived parental styles of authoritarian, authoritative, permissive/uninvolved, and neglectful/uninvolved will also be measured using a perceived parenting style questionnaire known as PAQ. The validity and reliability of the PAQ was established by Buri (1991). The dependent variable will be defined as college age alcohol consumption as measured by alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT) (Dawson, Smith, & Saha, 2012). Alcohol consumption patterns will be measured using the AUDIT (Dawson et al., 2012). The World Health Organization recommends AUDIT to identify excess alcohol use/dependence and “provides a framework for intervention,” as it is designed for health care practitioners in a “range of health settings” (Babor et al., 2001, p. 371).

Research Questions

As also noted in chapter one above, the proposed study will be guided by the following research questions and related hypotheses:

RQ1. “What is the relationship between perceived parenting style and excess alcohol use of male, Jewish, college students aged 18-26 years?”

H01 There is no relationship between the independent variable of perceived parenting styles and the dependent variable of alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

HA1 There is a positive relationship between the independent variable of perceived parenting style and the dependent variable of alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

RQ2: “What is the relationship between academic achievement and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students?

H02 There is no relationship between the academic achievement and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

HA2 There is a relationship between academic achievement and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

RQ3: “Is there a relationship between age level and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students?

H03 There is no relationship between age level and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

HA3 There is a relationship between age and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

Population/Sample

According to demographic research conducted by Brandeis University, there are 6.8 million Jewish adults and children in the United States, 20% of which live in the state of New York (Tighe et al., 2012). The estimated sample consists of 200 male Jewish participants aged 18-26 years who will have read and acknowledged the informed consent form as part of the online survey. Since the survey was also designed to measure parenting styles, it is necessary to have people who were willing to comment on their own drinking habits as well as their perceptions of their parents’ parenting styles. The sample is deliberately homogenous according to gender, as only males were selected for participation and males were the target group for the current research. The participants may come from different family backgrounds, most of which are two parent households, but not negating the possibility of single-parent households. No students outside of university attendance may be used as participants, to keep the participant pool as narrow and focused as possible.

Instruments

Participants will complete both the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) (Babor, Higgins-Biddle, Saunders & Monteiro, 2001) and the Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) instruments online. A description of these two instruments is provided below.

AUDIT

The AUDIT instrument developed by the World Health Organization is a survey for adults used to identify risky drinking behaviors by asking about quantity and frequency of use. It was developed by the World Health Organization (WHO), and thus has a high degree of external validity which has been confirmed in a study by Dybek, Grothues & Meyer (2006) who report, “The AUDIT is a reliable and valid screening instrument” with the reliability of item-level scores ranging from .39 (for item 9) to.98 (for item 10).

Although the test was developed specifically for use on populations that had already been identified as having drinking problems, it remains a reliable measure of risk (Babor & Grant, 1989).The AUDIT (2001) survey is typically administered to patients in primary care, including those in emergency or acute patient settings or on criminals in court (“The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT),” n.d.). Because of the high level of validity in the current survey, and the need for great internal and external validity in the current research, AUDIT proved to be a helpful instrument.

Role of parenting style and attitude were studied with regards to children’s achievement levels in school (Kordi, 2010). In parenting style evaluation, numerous instruments featured significantly, some of which are: Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ: Buri 1991) formulated for measuring the three distinct parenting styles- authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive as defined by Baumrind (1991). The scale contains 30 items, and asks respondents to grade their father’s and mother’s parental behaviors on a 1 — 5 scale (1=strongly disagree; 5= strongly agree); 10 items came under each subscale (authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive). Higher grading for a particular subscale indicated higher confirmation of the assessed style of parenting (Kordi, 2010).

Evidence source on brief teenage intervention and alcohol screening for determining age-suited screening tools, suitable places for conducting intervention activities and effectual brief interventions were studied (Patton et al., 2014). The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) questionnaire showed higher levels of specificity and sensitivity in adolescents, as compared to other questionnaires. In case of adolescents, AUDIT specificities range between 65 and 97%, and sensitivities range between 54 and 87%; most findings belonged to the lower limit of the specificity and sensitivity range, and hence, are suboptimal in effective screening (Patton et al., 2014).

One benefit of AUDIT (2001) is that it is a brief and therefore unintimidating survey that takes only about two minutes to administer. There are a total of eight questions, each with a scale of 0 to 4 with “never” being a 0 and “daily or almost daily” as a 4. Therefore, the higher the score that results from the participant taking this survey, the higher the level of alcohol dependence indicated for that participant. The first response for the questionnaire could be a 0, for never. The second response would be less than monthly, or a score of 1. The third response would be monthly, for a score of 2. Weekly response is the fourth, yielding a score of 3. The final and last response is a score of 4 for daily or almost daily. Questions 9 and 10 have three responses only, with scores of 0, 2, and 4. A score of 8 or more is deemed to be hazardous drinking, or harmful drinking (“The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT, 2001). A score of 15 or more for male participants indicates alcohol dependence. A pro forma copy of the AUDIT instrument is provided at Appendix A.

PAQ

The reason the Parental Authority Questionnaire survey was chosen for this research is because it was proven especially helpful for use with older adolescents and young adults, which is the population in question. Buri’s (1991) PAQ was developed to measure the main parental styles: permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative from the point-of-view of the child. This survey consists of 30 items, divided into 10 each for permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative styles sub-scales which require between 10 and 15 minutes to complete. Sample questions include the following:

“As I was growing up my mother did not allow me to question any decision she had made” (p.2).

“Whenever my mother told me to do something as I was growing up, she expected me to do it immediately” (p. 2).

Buri (1991) tested for internal validity, consistency, and discriminant-related reliability. Cronbach alpha values were also obtained. Higher appraised levels of the parenting styles used result in higher scores for the parental authority prototype (Reitman, Rhode & Hupp, 2002).

A study by Reitman et al. (2002) identified an average of 90% of the Authoritarian scale items and 83% for the Permissive subscale items which all loaded above .30 on their respective predicted subscales. These researchers, however, did find that the Authoritative subscale diverged across demographic samples (Reitman et al., 2002), but this is not regarded as an issue for the proposed study based on the homogeneity of the population. Norm testing was also included in the evaluation of the survey. Parental warmth and nurturance were taken into consideration when developing the survey (Buri, 1991). In addition, Buri also found correlations with the Marlowe-Corwne Social Desirability Scale (Leite & Beretvas, 2005) and it was shown that the PAQ is not particularly vulnerable to social desirability response biases, or what the participant believes the tester is looking for or wants to see. This issue was taken into consideration for the current research.

Procedure

University students majoring in psychology, philosophy, child development, religion, science, and any other subject will be invited to participate in this research via the following links through SurveyMonkey:

https://www.google.com/#q=parenting+authority+questionnaire for PAI; and,

http://www.markjayalcoholdetox.co.uk/audit.php for the AUDIT.

Based on the estimated 7 million Jewish youth population described above, a power analysis with a 5% margin of error and a 95% confidence level requires approximately 201 student respondents (RaoSoft sample size calculator, 2016). These students must be over 18, male, attending a 4-year university or college, or in Rabbinical College. Participants will be selected by random sampling of SurveyMonkey with a soliciting email address, after which the participants will be given the survey instruments as described later in this methods section. Informed consent will be acquired using the form shown at Appendix C which will explain that participants have the right to withdraw their application to participate without being penalized for doing so. After informed consent is acquired, the two surveys will be administered online.

Participants

Participants will be 200 college age males, 18-26 and self-identify as Jewish. Few studies have been conducted on this cultural group and the parental influence on drinking and the subset of male college students. A probability sample from the SurveyMonkey national participant panel provides the participants.

Measurement

The results of the surveys will be collected and placed in SPSS statistics software to be analyzed. Finally, the results will be tabulated; surveys will be numbered, and the software will be used for data analysis.

The AUDIT and the PAQ are both relatively easy to measure. Regarding the AUDIT questionnaire, the participants rate their drinking habits on a Likert-like scale allowing for nuanced responses that were nevertheless quantitative in nature. Each score for alcohol dependency was tabulated to provide a cogent score that could be used to assess drinking, albeit from self-reporting rather than from observation. The 8-item AUDIT yields a singular score for each participant, and it was relatively simple to analyze using statistical means. The AUDIT scores are loose, in the sense that the respondents may vary in their interpretation of their own drinking habits, but having the numerical responses ensures measurability of the data.

The PAQ measures the parental style based on the responses, yielding a response of Permissive, Authoritative, and Authoritarian for each participant’s perception of the parenting style they recalled from their childhood or from watching younger siblings. Parenting styles were shown to be related to various factors and these factors were being measured for in the current research. This is why the proposed study will use SPSS software to analyze the data.

Limitations

There may be a low level of external validity, and the results may not transfer to communities outside the one addressed here beyond other similarly situated Jewish communities in America. In addition, time limitations may preclude collecting the number of responses desired.

Ethical Considerations

Informed consent will be acquired via a secure form, an outline of the study, and a form showing the participants that they have the ability to withdraw their application to participate without being penalized for doing so. After informed consent is acquired, the two surveys will be administered online. Because the research does not involve a bivariate analysis of an intervention with a control group, there are no significant ethical concerns with the study and anonymity ensures little to no risk for the participants involved. Data will be collected and stored through the Survey Monkey platform and retained until the data analysis has been completed.

The methods used to conduct the current research will allow for the testing of the research hypotheses related to the relationship between drinking patterns among Jewish college and rabbinical college students, and the parenting styles in which they were raised. The results section that follows will have implications for future research. It will have the potential for suggesting interventions in the target community.

Chapter Summary

This chapter provided a description of the nature of the proposed study and an overview of the quantitative method of analysis that will be used. This chapter also provided a reiteration of the proposed study’s guiding research questions and hypotheses as well as the population/sample of interest, the two instruments that will be administered online and the procedure that will be followed. A description of the study’s participants was followed by a discussion concerning potential limitations of the proposed study. Finally, an assessment of the anticipated limitations of the proposed study and ethical considerations concluded this chapter. The data collected for the study will be presented and analyzed as described above in chapter 4 below.

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Appendix A

Proforma Copy of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test

AUDIT Questionnaire

This questionnaire is designed to indicate whether your drinking is harmful, hazardous or dependent.

The questions are about your use of alcohol during the past 12 months.

In questions 2 and 3, a unit of alcohol means 10 grams of alcohol.

For example (approximate values):

1 x bottle of 12% wine = 9 units

1 x pint 5% beer = 3 units

1 x can of 5% beer, lager, cider = 2 units; 4 cans = 9 units

1 x can of 9% beer, lager, cider = 4 units; 4 cans = 16 units

1 x 75cl bottle of 40% spirits = 30 units

1. How often do you have a drink containing alcohol?

Never

Monthly or less

2 to 4 times a month

2 or 3 times a week

4 or more times a week

2. How many alcohol units do you have on a typical day when you are drinking?

None

1 or 21/2

3 or 4

5 or 6

7 to 9

10 or more

3. How often do you have seven or more units on one occasion?

Never

Less than monthly

Monthly

Weekly

Daily or almost daily

4. How often during the last year have you found that you were unable to stop drinking once you had started?

Never

Less than monthly

Monthly

Weekly

Daily or almost daily

5. How often during the last year have you failed to do what was normally expected from you because of drinking?

Never

Less than monthly

Monthly

Weekly

Daily or almost daily

6. How often during the last year have you needed a first drink in the morning to get yourself going after a heavy drinking session?

Never

Less than monthly

Monthly

Weekly

Daily or almost daily

7. How often during the last year have you had a feeling of guilt or remorse after drinking?

Never

Less than monthly

Monthly

Weekly

Daily or almost daily

8. How often during the last year have you been unable to remember what happened the night before because you had been drinking?

Never

Less than monthly

Monthly

Weekly

Daily or almost daily

9. Have you or someone else been injured as the result of your drinking?

Never

Yes, but not in the last year

Yes, during the last year

10. Has a relative, friend, or a doctor or other health worker been concerned about your drinking or suggested you cut down?

Never

Yes, but not in the last year

Yes, during the last year

Less than 8 indicates sensible drinking.

8-19 indicates harmful or hazardous drinking – drinking at your current level puts you at risk of developing problems. Consider cutting down, or seeking help if you can’t.

20 or above indicates that your drinking is already causing you problems, and you could be dependent. You should definitely stop or reduce your drinking. You should seek help if you can’t.

If your score is 16 or over, you may want to consider taking the Severity of Alcohol Dependence Questionnaire

Adapted from the World Health Organization’s Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test 2001

Please note that the accuracy of the scripts used to formulate your score are not guaranteed, and that use of this online version of this questionnaire is for general inquisitive use only. It should only be used as a diagnostic tool by health professionals suitably qualified and experienced to check and interpret the results.

Please note that the online guide provided was last edited in 2013

Appendix B

Proforma Copy of the Parental Authority Questionnaire

Instructions: For each of the following statements, circle the number of the 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) that best describes how that statement applies to you and your mother. Try to read and think about each statement as it applies to you and your mother during your years of growing up at home. There are no right or wrong answers, so don’t spend a lot of time on any one item. We are looking for your overall impression regarding each statement. Be sure not to omit any items.

1 = Strongly disagree

2 = Disagree

3 = Neither agree nor disagree

4 = Agree

5 = Strongly Agree

1. While I was growing up my mother felt that in a well-run home the children should have their way in the family as often as the parents do.

1 2-3-4 5

2. Even if her children didn’t agree with her, my mother felt that it was for our own good if we were forced to conform to what she thought was right.

1 2-3-4 5

3. Whenever my mother told me to do something as I was growing up, she expected me to do it immediately without asking any questions.

1 2-3-4 5

4. As I was growing up, once family policy had been established, my mother discussed the reasoning behind the policy with the children in the family.

1 2-3-4 5

5. My mother has always encouraged verbal give-and-take whenever I have felt that family rules and restrictions were unreasonable.

1 2-3-4 5

6. My mother has always felt that what her children need is to be free to make up their own minds and to do what they want to do, even if this does not agree with what their parents might want.

1 2-3-4 5

7. As I was growing up my mother did not allow me to question any decision she had made.

1 2-3-4 5

8. As I was growing up my mother directed the activities and decisions of the children in the family through reasoning and discipline.

1 2-3-4 5

9. My mother has always felt that more force should be used by parents in order to get their children to behave the way they are supposed to.

1 2-3-4 5

10. As I was growing up my mother did not feel that I needed to obey rules and regulations of behavior simply because someone in authority had established them.

1 2-3-4 5

11. As I was growing up I knew what my mother expected of me in my family, but I also felt free to discuss those expectations with my mother when I felt that they were unreasonable.

1 2-3-4 5

12. My mother felt that wise parents should teach their children early just who is boss in the family.

1 2-3-4 5

13. As I was growing up, my mother seldom gave me expectations and guidelines for my behavior.

1 2-3-4 5

14. Most of the time as I was growing up my mother did what the children in the family wanted when making family decisions.

1 2-3-4 5

15. As the children in my family were growing up, my mother consistently gave us direction and guidance in rational and objective ways.

1 2-3-4 5

16. As I was growing up my mother would get very upset if I tried to disagree with her.

1 2-3-4 5

17. My mother feels that most problems in society would be solved if parents would not restrict their children’s activities, decisions, and desires as they are growing up.

1 2-3-4 5

18. As I was growing up my mother let me know what behavior she expected of me, and if I didn’t meet those expectations, she punished me.

1 2-3-4 5

19. As I was growing up my mother allowed me to decide most things for myself without a lot of direction from her.

1 2-3-4 5

20. As I was growing up my mother took the children’s opinions into consideration when making family decisions, but she would not decide for something simply because the children wanted it.

1 2-3-4 5

21. My mother did not view herself as responsible for directing and guiding my behavior as I was growing up.

1 2-3-4 5

22. My mother had clear standards of behavior for the children in our home as I was growing up, but she was willing to adjust those standards to the needs of each of the individual children in the family.

1 2-3-4 5

23. My mother gave me direction for my behavior and activities as I was growing up and she expected me to follow her direction, but she was always willing to listen to my concerns and to discuss that direction with me.

1 2-3-4 5

24. As I was growing up my mother allowed me to form my own point-of-view on family matters and she generally allowed me to decide for myself what I was going to do.

1 2-3-4 5

25. My mother has always felt that most problems in society would be solved if we could get parents to strictly and forcibly deal with their children when they don’t do what they are supposed to as they are growing up.

1 2-3-4 5

26. As I was growing up my mother often told me exactly what she wanted me to do and how she expected me to do it.

1 2-3-4 5

27. As I was growing up my mother gave me clear direction for my behaviors and activities, but she was also understanding when I disagreed with her.

1 2-3-4 5

28. As I was growing up my mother did not direct the behaviors, activities, and desires of the children in the family.

1 2-3-4 5

29. As I was growing up I knew what my mother expected of me in the family and she insisted that I conform to those expectations simply out of respect for her authority.

1 2-3-4 5

30. As I was growing up, if my mother made a decision in the family that hurt me, she was willing to discuss that decision with me and to admit it if she had made a mistake.

1 2-3-4 5

Description: The PAQ is designed to measure parental authority, or disciplinary practices, from the point-of-view of the child (of any age).

The PAQ has three subscales:

permissive (P: items 1, 6, 10, 13, 14, 17, 19, 21, 24 and 28), authoritarian (A: items 2, 3,

7, 9, 12, 16, 18, 25, 26 and 29), and authoritative/flexible (F: items 4, 5, 8, 11, 15, 20, 22,

23, 27, and 30). Mother and father forms of the assessment are identical except for references to gender.

Scoring: The PAQ is scored easily by summing the individual items to comprise the subscale scores. Scores on each subscale range from 10 to 50.

Author: Dr. John R. Buri, Department of Psychology, University of St. Thomas, 2115

Summit Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55105.

Source: Buri, J.R. (1991). Parental Authority Questionnaire, Journal of Personality and Social Assessment, 57, 110-119

Appendix C

Informed Consent for Online Survey Respondents

1. Acknowledgement of Informed Consent

Thank you for your interest in this research! Please read the following document carefully.

Acknowledgment of Informed Consent

Section I: Identification of Project and Responsible Investigator:

I hereby agree to participate in a research project entitled “Parenting Style Influence on Alcohol Intake among Jewish Youth.”

Section II: Participant Rights and Information:

1. Purpose of the Project:

The purpose of this research to gain insight into the effects of different parenting styles of Jewish adolescent and young adult alcohol consumption. Participation in this research will approximately be 10-15 minutes. Participants will be asked to answer questions online to the best of their ability.

2. Description of Risks:

Some of the nature of the material included in this research may make some people uncomfortable. If you feel uncomfortable with any of the items, please make your best effort to continue, but you may also withdraw from participation at any time. This research does not foresee placing the participant in any physical risk.

3. Description of Benefits:

This research will help fill existing gaps in the body of knowledge concerning parenting styles and their impact on young people’s perceptions and attitudes about alcohol use.

There will be no monetary benefits for completion.

4. Disclosure of Alternative Procedures:

There are no alternative procedures for this research except for non-participation.

5. Confidentiality of Records:

Records will be kept of participant data from this study, but will NOT include your name, address, school ID number, or any other personal information. The records will include age, sex and race. Records will only be open to the principal investigator.

6. Statement of Voluntary Participation:

If you choose to complete the two surveys that follow, your participation will be voluntary. You can withdraw from the research project at any time. If you decide to withdraw from participating, there will be no penalty.

Do you agree to the consent information listed on this form? Yes No

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